The War in Afghanistan, spanning from 2001 to 2021, was initiated in response to the September 11 attacks. Led by the United States, an international coalition launched Operation Enduring Freedom to oust the Taliban government, which harbored al-Qaeda operatives responsible for the attacks. Despite the initial military success that established the Islamic Republic and displaced the Taliban from major cities, the conflict evolved into the United States' longest war, culminating in the Taliban's resurgence and eventual takeover in 2021.
Post-September 11, the US demanded the extradition of Osama bin Laden from the Taliban, who refused without evidence of his involvement. Following the Taliban's expulsion, the international community, under a UN-sanctioned mission, aimed to establish a democratic Afghan government to prevent a Taliban resurgence. Despite these efforts, by 2003, the Taliban had regrouped, launching a widespread insurgency that regained significant territories by 2007.
In 2011, a US operation in Pakistan eliminated Osama bin Laden, prompting NATO to transition security responsibilities to the Afghan government by the end of 2014. Diplomatic efforts to end the conflict, including the 2020 US-Taliban deal, ultimately failed to stabilize Afghanistan, leading to the Taliban's rapid offensive and re-establishment of the Islamic Emirate as US and NATO forces withdrew.
The war resulted in the deaths of an estimated 176,000–212,000 people, including 46,319 civilians, and displaced millions, with 2.6 million Afghans remaining refugees and another 4 million internally displaced by 2021. The conflict's end marked a significant moment in global politics, reflecting the complexities of international military interventions and the challenges of achieving lasting peace in regions with deep-seated political and ideological divisions.
History of Afghanistan
References
- Adamec, Ludwig W. Historical dictionary of Afghanistan (Scarecrow Press, 2011).
- Adamec, Ludwig W. Historical dictionary of Afghan wars, revolutions, and insurgencies (Scarecrow Press, 2005).
- Adamec, Ludwig W. Afghanistan's foreign affairs to the mid-twentieth century: relations with the USSR, Germany, and Britain (University of Arizona Press, 1974).
- Banting, Erinn. Afghanistan the People. Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003. ISBN 0-7787-9336-2.
- Barfield, Thomas. Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History (Princeton U.P. 2010) excerpt and text search Archived 2017-02-05 at the Wayback Machine
- Bleaney, C. H; María Ángeles Gallego. Afghanistan: a bibliography Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Brill, 2006. ISBN 90-04-14532-X.
- Caroe, Olaf (1958). The Pathans: 500 B.C.–A.D. 1957 Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints. Oxford University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-19-577221-0.
- Clements, Frank. Conflict in Afghanistan: a historical encyclopedia Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. ABC-CLIO, 2003. ISBN 1-85109-402-4.
- Dupree, Louis. Afghanistan. Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-691-03006-5.
- Dupree, Nancy Hatch. An Historical Guide to Afghanistan Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. 2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged. Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization, 1977.
- Ewans, Martin. Afghanistan – a new history (Routledge, 2013).
- Fowler, Corinne. Chasing tales: travel writing, journalism and the history of British ideas about Afghanistan Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Rodopi, 2007. Amsterdam and New York. ISBN 90-420-2262-0.
- Griffiths, John C. (1981). Afghanistan: a history of conflict Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Carlton Books, 2001. ISBN 1-84222-597-9.
- Gommans, Jos J. L. The rise of the Indo-Afghan empire, c. 1710–1780. Brill, 1995. ISBN 90-04-10109-8.
- Gregorian, Vartan. The emergence of modern Afghanistan: politics of reform and modernization, 1880–1946. Stanford University Press, 1969. ISBN 0-8047-0706-5
- Habibi, Abdul Hai. Afghanistan: An Abridged History. Fenestra Books, 2003. ISBN 1-58736-169-8.
- Harmatta, János. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999. ISBN 81-208-1408-8.
- Hiebert, Fredrik Talmage. Afghanistan: hidden treasures from the National Museum, Kabul. National Geographic Society, 2008. ISBN 1-4262-0295-4.
- Hill, John E. 2003. 'Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.' 2nd Draft Edition.'The Han Histories'. Depts.washington.edu. Archived from the original on 2006-04-26. Retrieved 2010-01-31.
- Holt, Frank. Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan. University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 0-520-24993-3.
- Hopkins, B. D. 2008. The Making of Modern Afghanistan Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. ISBN 0-230-55421-0.
- Jabeen, Mussarat, Prof Dr Muhammad Saleem Mazhar, and Naheed S. Goraya. 'US Afghan Relations: A Historical Perspective of Events of 9/11.' South Asian Studies 25.1 (2020).
- Kakar, M. Hassan. A Political and Diplomatic History of Afghanistan, 1863-1901 (Brill, 2006)online Archived 2021-09-09 at the Wayback Machine
- Leake, Elisabeth. Afghan Crucible: The Soviet Invasion and the Making of Modern Afghanistan (Oxford University Press. 2022) online book review
- Malleson, George Bruce (1878). History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Elibron Classic Replica Edition. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005. ISBN 1-4021-7278-8.
- Olson, Gillia M. Afghanistan. Capstone Press, 2005. ISBN 0-7368-2685-8.
- Omrani, Bijan & Leeming, Matthew Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Odyssey Publications, 2nd Edition, 2011. ISBN 962-217-816-2.
- Reddy, L. R. Inside Afghanistan: end of the Taliban era? Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. APH Publishing, 2002. ISBN 81-7648-319-2.
- Romano, Amy. A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. The Rosen Publishing Group, 2003. ISBN 0-8239-3863-8.
- Runion, Meredith L. The history of Afghanistan Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN 0-313-33798-5.
- Saikal, Amin, A.G. Ravan Farhadi, and Kirill Nourzhanov. Modern Afghanistan: a history of struggle and survival (IB Tauris, 2012).
- Shahrani, M Nazif, ed. Modern Afghanistan: The Impact of 40 Years of War (Indiana UP, 2018)
- Siddique, Abubakar. The Pashtun Question The Unresolved Key to the Future of Pakistan and Afghanistan (Hurst, 2014)
- Tanner, Stephen. Afghanistan: a military history from Alexander the Great to the war against the Taliban (Da Capo Press, 2009).
- Wahab, Shaista; Barry Youngerman. A brief history of Afghanistan. Infobase Publishing, 2007. ISBN 0-8160-5761-3
- Vogelsang, Willem. The Afghans Archived 2022-12-28 at the Wayback Machine. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. Oxford, UK & Massachusetts, US. ISBN 0-631-19841-5.