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The Oxus Civilization, also known as the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), was a Middle Bronze Age civilization in southern Central Asia, mainly around the Amu Darya (Oxus River) in Bactria and the Murghab river delta in Margiana (modern Turkmenistan). Noted for its urban sites predominantly located in Margiana and a significant site in southern Bactria (now northern Afghanistan), the civilization is characterized by its monumental structures, fortified walls, and gates, uncovered during excavations led by Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi from 1969 to 1979. Sarianidi named the civilization BMAC in 1976.
The development of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) spans several periods, beginning with early settlement in the northern foothills of the Kopet Dag during the Neolithic period at Jeitun (c. 7200-4600 BCE),[3] where mud brick houses and agriculture were first established. This era, known for its farming communities with origins in southwest Asia, transitions into the Chalcolithic period with evidence of advanced crop cultivation suited for arid conditions found at Chagylly Depe.
The subsequent Regionalization Era (4600-2800 BCE) saw the emergence of pre-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic developments in the Kopet Dag region and the establishment of significant settlements like Kara-Depe, Namazga-Depe, and Altyn-Depe, alongside advancements in metallurgy and agriculture introduced by migrants from central Iran. This period is marked by population growth and the diversification of settlements across the region.
By the Late Regionalization Era,[3] the culture at Altyn Depe evolved into a proto-urban society, highlighting the Namazga III phase's (c. 3200-2800 BCE) late Chalcolithic characteristics. The Integration Era, or the urban phase of the BMAC, reached its zenith in the Middle Bronze Age with significant urban centers developing in the Kopet Dag piedmont, Margiana, and southern Bactria, alongside notable cemetery sites in southwestern Tajikistan.
Key urban sites like Namazga Depe and Altyn Depe grew substantially, indicating complex societal structures. Similarly, Margiana's settlement patterns, particularly at Gonur Depe and the Kelleli phase sites, reflect sophisticated urban planning and architectural development, with Gonur considered a major center in the region. The material culture of the BMAC, characterized by its agricultural practices, monumental architecture, and metalworking skills, suggests a highly developed civilization. The presence of wheeled transport models from c. 3000 BCE at Altyn-Depe represents one of the earliest evidences of such technology in Central Asia.
Interactions with neighboring cultures were significant, with archaeological evidence indicating trade and cultural exchanges with the Indus Valley civilization, the Iranian Plateau, and beyond. These interactions highlight the BMAC's role in the broader prehistoric context of Eurasia. The complex has also been the subject of various theories regarding the Indo-Iranians, with some scholars suggesting that the BMAC could represent the material culture of these groups. This hypothesis is supported by the integration of Indo-Iranian speakers from the Andronovo culture into the BMAC, potentially leading to the development of Proto-Indo-Aryan language and culture within this hybrid society before moving south into the Indian subcontinent.