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The region of Bactria saw the introduction of Greek settlers as early as the reign of Darius I, who deported the population of Barca from Cyrenaica to Bactria for their refusal to hand over assassins.[7] Greek influence in the area expanded under Xerxes I, marked by the forced relocation of descendants of Greek priests from near Didyma in western Asia Minor to Bactria, along with other Greek exiles and prisoners of war. By 328 BCE, when Alexander the Great conquered Bactria, Greek communities and the Greek language were already prevalent in the region.[8]
The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, established in 256 BCE by Diodotus I Soter, was a Hellenistic Greek state in Central Asia and part of the Hellenistic world's eastern frontier. Spanning modern-day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and parts of Kazakhstan, Iran, and Pakistan, this kingdom was one of the farthest eastern reaches of Hellenistic culture. It extended its influence further east, possibly up to the borders of the Qin State around 230 BCE. The kingdom's significant cities, Ai-Khanum and Bactra, were known for their wealth, with Bactria itself celebrated as "the land of a thousand golden cities."
Euthydemus, originally from Magnesia, overthrew Diodotus II around 230–220 BCE, establishing his own dynasty in Bactria and extending his control to Sogdiana.[9] His reign faced a challenge from Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BCE, leading to a three-year siege in Bactra (modern Balkh), which ended with Antiochus recognizing Euthydemus's rule and offering a matrimonial alliance.[10]
Euthydemus's son, Demetrius, initiated an invasion of the Indian subcontinent around 180 BCE, following the fall of the Mauryan Empire. Historians debate his motivations, ranging from support for the Mauryans to protecting Buddhism from the Shungas' alleged persecutions. Demetrius's campaign, which may have reached Pataliputra (modern Patna), laid the groundwork for the Indo-Greek Kingdom, lasting until approximately 10 CE. This era saw the flourishing of Buddhism and Greco-Buddhism cultural syncretism, notably under King Menander I.
Around 170 BCE, Eucratides, possibly a general or a Seleucid ally, overthrew the Euthydemid dynasty in Bactria. An Indian king, likely Demetrius II, attempted to reclaim Bactria but was defeated. Eucratides then expanded his rule into northwestern India, until being repelled by Menander I. Eucratides's defeat by Parthian king Mithridates I, potentially allied with Euthydemid supporters, weakened his position. By 138 BCE, Mithridates I had extended his control to the Indus region, but his death in 136 BCE left the territory vulnerable, eventually leading to Heliocles I's rule over the remaining lands. This period marked Bactria's decline, exposing it to nomadic invasions.