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The Ghurid dynasty, of eastern Iranian Tajik origin, ruled from the 8th century in Ghor, central Afghanistan, evolving into an empire from 1175 to 1215. Initially local chiefs, their conversion to Sunni Islam followed the Ghaznavid conquest in 1011. Gaining independence from Ghaznavid and later Seljuk vassalage, the Ghurids capitalized on regional power vacuums to expand their territory significantly. Ala al-Din Husayn asserted Ghurid autonomy by sacking the Ghaznavid capital, despite subsequent defeat by the Seljuks. The Seljuk decline in eastern Iran, coupled with the rise of the Khwarazmian Empire, shifted regional dynamics in the Ghurids' favor. Under the joint rule of Ala al-Din Husayn's nephews, Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad and Muhammad of Ghor, the empire reached its zenith, spanning eastern Iran to easternmost India, including vast areas of the Gangetic Plain. Ghiyath al-Din's focus on western expansion contrasted with Muhammad of Ghor's eastern campaigns. Ghiyath al-Din's death in 1203 from rheumatic disorders and Muhammad's assassination in 1206 marked the decline of Ghurid power in Khurasan. The dynasty's complete fall came in 1215 under Shah Muhammad II, although their conquests in the Indian Subcontinent persisted, evolving into the Delhi Sultanate under Qutb ud-Din Aibak.
Background
Amir Banji, a Ghurid prince and ruler of Ghor, is recognized as an ancestor of the medieval Ghurid rulers, legitimized by Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. Initially under Ghaznavid and Seljuk influence for about 150 years, the Ghurids asserted their independence in the mid-12th century. Their early religious affiliations were pagan, transitioning to Islam under the influence of Abu Ali ibn Muhammad. In a tumultuous period marked by internal conflict and revenge, Sayf al-Din Suri's defeat by Ghaznavid ruler Bahram-Shah and subsequent revenge by Ala al-Din Husayn characterized the Ghurids' rise to power. Ala al-Din Husayn, known as "the world burner" for sacking Ghazni, solidified Ghurid defiance against the Seljuks, enduring captivity and ransom before reclaiming Ghor and expanding its territories significantly. Under Ala al-Din Husayn's reign, the Ghurids established Firuzkuh as their capital, expanding into Garchistan, Tukharistan, and other areas, despite challenges from Oghuz Turks and internal rivals. The dynasty's growth saw the establishment of minor branches, intertwined with Turkic heritage, shaping the Ghurid legacy in the region.
Golden Age
The Ghurids, under Muhammad of Ghor's military prowess, reclaimed Ghazni from the Ghuzz Turks in 1173, asserting control over Herat in 1175, which, along with Firozkoh and Ghazni, became a cultural and political stronghold. Their influence expanded across Nīmrūz, Sīstān, and into Seljuk territory in Kerman. During the conquest of Khorasan in 1192, the Ghurids, led by Muhammad, challenged the Khwarezmian Empire and the Qara Khitai for dominance over the region, exploiting the vacuum left by the Seljuks' decline. They captured Khorasan, including Nishapur and reaching Besṭām, after the death of the Khwarezmian leader Tekish in 1200.
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, succeeding his cousin Sayf al-Din Muhammad, emerged as a formidable ruler with the support of his brother, Muhammad of Ghor. Their early reign was marked by eliminating a rival chief and defeating an uncle who contested the throne with the backing of the Seljuq governor of Herat and Balkh. Following Ghiyath's death in 1203, Muhammad of Ghor assumed control of the Ghurid Empire, continuing his rule until his assassination in 1206 by Ismāʿīlīs, against whom he had campaigned. This period highlights the Ghurid Empire's zenith and the intricate dynamics of regional power struggles, setting the stage for subsequent shifts in the historical landscape of the region.
Conquest of India
On the eve of the Ghurid invasion, northern India was a mosaic of independent Rajput kingdoms, such as the Chahamanas, Chaulukyas, Gahadavalas, and others like the Senas in Bengal, engaged in frequent conflicts. Muhammad of Ghor, launching a series of military campaigns between 1175 and 1205, significantly altered this landscape. Starting with the conquest of Multan and Uch, he expanded Ghurid control into the heart of northern India, overcoming challenges like the failed invasion of Gujarat in 1178 due to the harsh desert conditions and Rajput resistance.
By 1186, Muhammad had consolidated Ghurid power in Punjab and the Indus Valley, setting the stage for further expansions into India. His initial defeat by Prithviraja III at the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 was swiftly avenged the following year, leading to Prithviraja's capture and execution. Muhammad's subsequent victories, including the defeat of Jayachandra at Chandawar in 1194 and the sacking of Benares, showcased the Ghurids' military might and strategic acumen.
Muhammad of Ghor's conquests paved the way for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate under his general, Qutb ud-Din Aibak, marking a significant shift in the political and cultural landscape of northern India. The demolition of Hindu temples and construction of mosques on their sites, alongside the sacking of Nalanda University by Bakhtiyar Khalji, underscored the transformative impact of the Ghurid invasion on the region's religious and scholarly institutions.
Following Muhammad's assassination in 1206, his empire fragmented into smaller sultanates governed by his Turkic generals, leading to the rise of the Delhi Sultanate. This period of turmoil eventually culminated in the consolidation of power under the Mamluk dynasty, the first of five dynasties to rule the Delhi Sultanate, which would dominate India until the advent of the Mughal Empire in 1526.