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History of Afghanistan

Ghaznavid Empire

© History

History of Afghanistan

Ghaznavid Empire

977 Jan 1 - 1186
Ghazni, Afghanistan
Ghaznavid Empire
Ghaznavid Rule in Afghanistan. © History

Video

The Ghaznavid Empire, a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin, ruled from 977 to 1186, covering parts of Iran, Khorasan, and the northwest Indian subcontinent at its zenith. Founded by Sabuktigin after the death of his father-in-law, Alp Tigin, a former Samanid Empire general from Balkh, the empire saw significant expansion under Sabuktigin's son, Mahmud of Ghazni. Mahmud extended the empire's reach to the Amu Darya, the Indus River, the Indian Ocean to the east, and to Rey and Hamadan in the west.


However, under Mas'ud I, the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing its western territories to the Seljuk Empire following the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040. This defeat led to the Ghaznavids retaining control only over areas that now comprise modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northern India. The decline continued when Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni to the Ghurid sultan Ala al-Din Husayn in 1151. Although the Ghaznavids momentarily recaptured Ghazni, they eventually lost it to the Ghuzz Turks, who then lost it to Muhammad of Ghor. The Ghaznavids retreated to Lahore, which became their regional capital until 1186, when the Ghurid sultan, Muhammad of Ghor, conquered it, leading to the imprisonment and execution of the last Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrau Malik.


Rise

The emergence of the Simjurids and Ghaznavids from the ranks of the Turkic slave-guards significantly impacted the Samanid Empire. The Simjurids were granted territories in eastern Khorasan, while Alp Tigin and Abu al-Hasan Simjuri vied for control over the empire by influencing the succession after Abd al-Malik I's death in 961. This succession crisis and the rivalry for dominance led to Alp Tigin's retreat and subsequent rule over Ghazna as a Samanid authority after being rejected by the court, which favored civilian ministers over Turkic military leaders. The Simjurids, controlling areas south of the Amu Darya, faced pressures from the rising Buyid dynasty and could not withstand the Samanids' fall and the Ghaznavids' ascent. These internal conflicts and power struggles among Turkic generals and the shifting loyalty of the court's ministers highlighted and expedited the decline of the Samanid Empire. This weakening of Samanid authority invited the Karluks, newly Islamicized Turkic people, to occupy Bukhara in 992, leading to the establishment of the Kara-Khanid Khanate in Transoxiana, further fragmenting the region previously under Samanid influence.


Foundation

Sabuktigin, originally a Turkic mamluk (slave-soldier), rose to prominence through military skill and strategic marriages, eventually marrying Alptigin's daughter. Alptigin had seized Ghazna from the Lawik rulers in 962, establishing a base of power that Sabuktigin would later inherit. Following Alptigin's death and a brief rule by his son and another former ghulam, Sabuktigin gained control of Ghazna by removing the harsh ruler Bilgetigin and the reinstated Lawik leader.


As governor of Ghazna, Sabuktigin expanded his influence at the behest of the Samanid emir, leading campaigns in Khurasan and acquiring governorships in Balkh, Tukharistan, Bamiyan, Ghur, and Gharchistan. He faced governance challenges, notably in Zabulistan, where he reversed the conversion of military fiefs into permanent ownerships to ensure the loyalty of the Turkic soldiery. His military and administrative actions strengthened his rule and secured additional territories, including an annual tribute from Qusdar in 976.


Upon Sabuktigin's death, his governance and military command were divided among his sons, with Ismail receiving Ghazna. Despite Sabuktigin's efforts to distribute power among his sons, a dispute over inheritance led Mahmud to challenge and defeat Ismail at the Battle of Ghazni in 998, capturing him and consolidating power. Sabuktigin's legacy included not only territorial expansion and military prowess but also the complex dynamics of succession within his dynasty, amidst the backdrop of the declining Samanid Empire.


Expansion and Golden Age

In 998, Mahmud of Ghazni ascended to the governorship, marking the beginning of the Ghaznavid dynasty's most illustrious era, closely tied to his leadership. He affirmed his allegiance to the caliph, justifying the replacement of the Samanids due to their alleged treason and was appointed governor of Khurasan with the titles Yamin al-Dawla and Amin al-Milla. Representing caliphal authority, Mahmud actively promoted Sunni Islam, engaging in campaigns against the Ismaili and Shi'ite Buyids and completing the conquest of Samanid and Shahi territories, including Multan in Sindh and parts of the Buwayhid domain. Mahmud's reign, considered the Ghaznavid Empire's golden age, was characterized by significant military expeditions, particularly into northern India, where he aimed to establish control and set up tributary states. His campaigns resulted in extensive looting and the expansion of Ghaznavid influence from Ray to Samarkand and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna.


Decline and Fall

After Mahmud of Ghazni's death, the Ghaznavid Empire passed to his mild and affectionate son Mohammed, whose rule was challenged by his brother Mas'ud over claims to three provinces. The conflict ended with Mas'ud seizing the throne, blinding, and imprisoning Mohammed. Mas'ud's tenure was marked by significant challenges, culminating in a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040 against the Seljuks, leading to the loss of Persian and Central Asian territories and initiating a period of instability. Attempting to salvage the empire from India, Mas'ud's efforts were undermined by his own forces, leading to his dethronement and imprisonment, where he was eventually assassinated. His son, Madood, attempted to consolidate power but faced resistance, marking the beginning of rapid changes in leadership and the empire's fragmentation.


During this tumultuous period, figures such as Ibrahim and Mas'ud III emerged, with Ibrahim noted for his contributions to the empire's cultural legacy, including significant architectural achievements. Despite attempts to stabilize the realm, internal strife and external pressures persisted, culminating in Sultan Bahram Shah's rule, during which Ghazni was briefly captured by the Ghurids, only to be retaken with Seljuk assistance. The final Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrau Malik, shifted the capital to Lahore, maintaining control until the Ghurid invasion in 1186, which led to his and his son's execution in 1191, effectively ending the Ghaznavid dynasty. This period marked the Ghaznavids' decline from a once-mighty empire to a historical footnote, overshadowed by emerging powers like the Seljuks and Ghurids.

Page Last Updated: 10/13/2024

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