After a series of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Mongol-Invasions-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Mongol invasions of Korea</a> between 1231 and 1281, Goryeo signed a treaty in favor of the Mongols and became a vassal state. Kublai was declared Khagan of the Mongol Empire in 1260 although that was not widely recognized by the Mongols in the west and established his capital at Khanbaliq (within modern Beijing) in 1264. <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> was then ruled by the Shikken (<a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>shogunate regents</a>) of the Hōjō clan, who had intermarried with and wrested control from Minamoto no Yoriie, shōgun of the Kamakura shogunate, after his death in 1203. The Mongols also made attempts to subjugate the native peoples of Sakhalin, the Ainu and Nivkh peoples, from 1264 to 1308.

Prologue

In 1266, Kublai Khan sent emissaries to Japan, demanding that it become a vassal state and send tribute, threatening conflict if his demands were ignored. The emissaries, however, returned empty-handed. A second delegation followed in 1268, but they too were unsuccessful. Both missions met with the Chinzei Bugyō, the Defense Commissioner for the West, who relayed Kublai’s messages to Shikken Hōjō Tokimune, the de facto ruler in Kamakura, and to the Emperor in Kyoto. Despite internal debates, Tokimune had already resolved to reject the demands, sending the emissaries away without any response.Undeterred, the Mongols continued to issue demands, dispatching Korean envoys and Mongol ambassadors on multiple occasions—on March 7 and September 17 of 1269, as well as in September 1271 and May 1272. Each time, however, Japanese authorities refused to allow them to land in Kyushu, making clear their defiance of Mongol pressure.

Japan Defies Kublai Khan

By morning, most of the Yuan ships had disappeared. According to a Japanese courtier in his diary entry for 6 November 1274, a sudden reverse wind from the east blew back the Yuan fleet. A few ships were beached and some 50 Yuan soldiers and sailors were captured and executed. According to the History of Yuan, 'a great storm arose and many warships were dashed on the rocks and destroyed.' It is not certain whether the storm occurred at Hakata or if the fleet had already set sail for Korea and encountered it on their way back. Some accounts offer casualty reports that suggest 200 ships were lost. Of the 30,000 strong invasion force, 13,500 did not return.

Invaders disappear

The Yuan invasion force set off from Korea on 2 November 1274. Two days later they began landing on Tsushima Island. The principal landing was made at Komoda beach near Sasuura, on the northwestern tip of the southern island. Additional landings occurred in the strait between the two islands of Tsushima, as well as at two points on the northern island. The following description of events is based on contemporary Japanese sources, notably the Sō Shi Kafu, a history of the Sō clan of Tsushima.At Sasuura, the invasion fleet was spotted offshore, allowing the deputy governor (jitodai) Sō Sukekuni (1207–74) to organize a hasty defense. With 80 <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Samurai-Warfare-Way-of-the-Warrior' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>mounted samurai</a> and their retinue, Sukekuni confronted an invasion force of what the Sō Shi Kafu describes as 8,000 warriors embarked on 900 ships. The Mongols landed at 02:00 in the morning on 5 November, and ignored the Japanese negotiation attempts, opening fire with their archers and forcing them to retreat. The fight was engaged by 04:00. The small garrison force was quickly defeated, but according to the Sō Shi Kafu, one samurai, Sukesada, cut down 25 enemy soldiers in individual combat. The invaders defeated a final Japanese cavalry charge around nightfall. After their victory at Komoda, the Yuan forces burnt down most of the buildings around Sasuura and slaughtered most of the inhabitants. They took the next few days to secure control of Tsushima.

Invasion of Tsushima

The invasion fleet was scheduled to depart in the seventh lunar month of 1274 but was delayed for three months. Kublai planned for the fleet to first attack Tsushima Island and Iki Island before making landfall in Hakata Bay. The Japanese plan of defense was simply to contest them at every point with gokenin. Both Yuan and Japanese sources exaggerate the opposing side's numbers, with the History of Yuan putting the Japanese at 102,000, and the Japanese claiming they were outnumbered at least ten to one. In reality there are no reliable records of the size of Japanese forces but estimates put their total numbers at around 4,000 to 6,000. The Yuan invasion force composed of 15,000 Mongol, Han Chinese, and Jurchen soldiers, and 6,000 to 8,000 Korean troops as well as 7,000 Korean sailors.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/1200x/20/1f/d3/201fd3f762c0c942e9ae1c901d9ab072.jpg'>Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274, 1281. © Anonymous

First invasion preparations

The Yuan fleet departed Tsushima on 13 November and attacked Iki Island. Like Sukekuni, Taira no Kagetaka, the governor of Iki, gave a spirited defence with 100 samurai and the local armed populace before falling back to his castle by nightfall. The next morning, Yuan forces had surrounded the castle. Kagetaka snuck out his daughter with a trusted samurai, Sōzaburō, on a secret passage to the shore, where they boarded a ship and fled for the mainland. A passing Mongol fleet shot arrows at them and killed the daughter but Sōzaburō managed to reach Hakata Bay and report Iki's defeat. Kagetaka made a final failed sortie with 36 men, 30 of whom died in battle, before committing suicide with his family. According to the Japanese, the Mongols then held down the women and stabbed through their palms with knives, stripped them naked, and tied their corpses to the sides of their ships.

Invasion of Iki

The Yuan fleet crossed the sea and landed in Hakata Bay on 19 November, a short distance from Dazaifu, the ancient administrative capital of Kyūshū. The following day brought the Battle of Bun'ei (文永の役), also known as the 'First Battle of Hakata Bay'. The Japanese forces, being inexperienced with non-Japanese tactics, found the Mongol army perplexing. The Yuan forces disembarked and advanced in a dense body protected by a screen of shields. They wielded their polearms in a tightly packed fashion with no space between them. As they advanced they also threw paper and iron casing bombs on occasion, frightening the Japanese horses and making them uncontrollable in battle. When the grandson of a Japanese commander shot an arrow to announce the beginning of battle, the Mongols burst out laughing. The battle lasted for only a day and the fighting, though fierce, was uncoordinated and brief. By nightfall the Yuan invasion force had forced the Japanese off the beach with a third of the defending forces dead, driving them several kilometres inland, and burning Hakata. The Japanese were preparing to make a last stand at Mizuki (water castle), an earthwork moat fort dating back to 664. However the Yuan attack never came. One of the three commanding Yuan generals, Liu Fuxiang (Yu-Puk Hyong), was shot in the face by the retreating samurai, Shōni Kagesuke, and seriously injured. Liu convened with the other generals Holdon and Hong Dagu back on his ship.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/1200x/c7/37/79/c73779823c0316e0a799ed0327e036c8.jpg'>First and Second Battles of Hakata Bay 1274, 1281. © Anonymous

First Battle of Hakata Bay

After the invasion of 1274, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Shogunate</a> made efforts to defend against a second invasion, which they thought was sure to come. They better <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Samurai-Warfare-Way-of-the-Warrior' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>organized the samurai of Kyūshū</a> and ordered the construction of forts and a large stone wall (石塁, Sekirui or 防塁, Bōrui) and other defensive structures at many potential landing points, including Hakata Bay, where a two-meter (6.6 ft) high wall was constructed in 1276. In addition, a large number of stakes were driven into the mouth of the river and the expected landing sites to prevent the Mongol Army from landing. A coastal watch was instituted, and rewards were given to some 120 valiant samurai.

Japanese prepares against future invasions

n July 16, 1281, during the second Mongol invasion of Japan, fighting broke out on Iki Island between Japanese defenders and the invading Mongol forces. After intense clashes, the Mongols were forced to retreat, regrouping on nearby Hirado Island.

Iki Island Resistance

In the first lunar month of 1281, preparations for the second Mongol invasion of Japan began. Two fleets were organized: the Eastern Route fleet, with 900 ships departing from Korea, and the larger Southern Route fleet, with 3,500 ships from southern China, commanded by Fan Wenhu but delayed by supply issues. The Mongol general Arakhan was named overall commander and accompanied the Southern Route fleet. The Eastern Route fleet sailed first, reaching Tsushima on June 9 and attacking Iki Island on June 14. According to the *History of Yuan*, Japanese commanders Shōni Suketoki and Ryūzōji Suetoki led a force of tens of thousands against the invaders, but the Mongol forces, using firearms, overwhelmed them. Suketoki was reportedly killed in the fighting, and over 300 islanders, including children, were massacred. However, the *History of Yuan* appears to conflate events from June with those of July, when Suketoki actually fell in battle during the later phases of the invasion.

Tsushima and Iki in the Second Mongol Invasion

The failed Mongol invasions of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> had lasting consequences for all parties involved. The Mongol Empire’s naval power was severely weakened, and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korea</a>, responsible for shipbuilding, lost much of its maritime capabilities after depleting its lumber resources. In Japan, the Kamakura <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Shogunate</a> struggled to reward the gokenin (vassals) since no new land was gained in the defensive war, leading to a decline in its authority. The power vacuum contributed to the rise of the *wokou* (Japanese pirates), who increased raids on the coasts of China and Korea. In <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a>, the invasions reinforced the belief that the Japanese were too fierce to conquer, leading future Chinese rulers, including those of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Ming-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ming Dynasty</a>, to abandon plans for further invasions despite considering them multiple times.

Epilogue

The Japanese repeated their small raids on the invasion fleet that lasted throughout the night. The Mongols responded by fastening their ships together with chains and planks to provide defensive platforms. There are no accounts of the raids from the Japanese side in this incident, unlike at the defence of Hakata Bay. According to the History of Yuan, the Japanese ships were small and were all beaten off

Stalemate at Hakata

During the second Mongol invasion of Japan in 1281, the invading forces occupied the islands of Shika and Noko to prepare for raids on Hakata. However, the Japanese launched aggressive counterattacks, raiding Mongol ships at night using small boats. According to the Hachiman Gudōkun, a warrior named Kusano Jirō boarded a Mongol ship, set it on fire, and took 21 heads. The following day, Kawano Michiari led a daring daytime raid with only two boats. Though his uncle Michitoki was killed and Michiari himself was wounded, he managed to board an enemy ship and kill a large Mongol warrior, earning honors for his bravery. Takezaki Suenaga also distinguished himself in the fighting, participating in raids and helping drive the Mongols from Shika Island. On June 30, the invaders were forced to retreat to Iki. These raids were part of the Japanese defense of Hakata Bay, known as the Battle of Kōan, a key episode in resisting the Mongol invasion.

Battle of Koan: Raids that Defended Hakata Bay

On June 25, 1281, during the second Mongol invasion of Japan, a fleet of 300 ships from the Eastern Route army launched an assault on Nagato, a province on the western coast of Honshu. The Japanese defenders, however, successfully repelled the attack, forcing the Mongol forces to retreat. The fleet withdrew to Iki Island, where it regrouped before continuing its campaign, though the invasion would ultimately falter due to logistical challenges, fierce resistance, and the devastating typhoon that struck later that summer.

Battle for Nagato

On August 15, 1281, during the second Mongol invasion of Japan, a massive typhoon, later called kamikaze or 'divine wind,' struck the combined Mongol fleets anchored off the coast of Kyushu. As the storm approached, experienced <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korean</a> and southern <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Chinese</a> sailors attempted to escape by docking in Imari Bay, but the storm followed, destroying their ships. Thousands of soldiers were left stranded at sea, clinging to debris or washing ashore.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/1200x/5a/9a/df/5a9adf09cd600dcbb18b42b6b33f907b.jpg'>Kamikaze: Storm That Saved Japan. © AnonymousThe Japanese defenders showed no mercy to most survivors, killing Mongols, Koreans, and northern Chinese soldiers they captured. Only the southern Chinese, who were believed to have been conscripted against their will, were spared, though they were enslaved. A Chinese survivor later recounted that Commander Fan Wenhu, seeing the fleet in ruins, gathered the best remaining ships and fled, abandoning over 100,000 troops to their fate.After being stranded on Takashima Island for three days, tens of thousands of surviving invaders were captured by Japanese forces and taken to Hakata. There, the Mongols, Koreans, and northern Chinese were executed, marking the catastrophic failure of the invasion and ending the Mongol threat to <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a>.

Kamikaze: The Storm That Saved Japan

In May, 22 1281, the Mongol Empire launched its second invasion of Japan, dispatching two fleets. One was the Eastern Route army, consisting of forces primarily from Korea, which had been under Mongol control. This fleet set sail from Korean ports in early summer, carrying an estimated 40,000 soldiers, including Mongols, Chinese from the Yuan dynasty, and Korean auxiliaries. Their goal was to join another fleet, the Southern Route army, sailing from southern China, and coordinate an assault on the Japanese islands.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/1200x/20/1f/d3/201fd3f762c0c942e9ae1c901d9ab072.jpg'>Mongol Invasions of Korea 1274, 1281. © AnonymousThe Eastern Route fleet made its way across the Korea Strait, targeting the island of Tsushima first. The Mongols intended to secure smaller islands along their path as staging points before converging with the Southern Route forces on Kyushu. However, Japanese defenders on Tsushima and Iki resisted fiercely, engaging the invaders in brutal skirmishes. After overwhelming these outposts, the Eastern Route army continued toward Kyushu, preparing for a larger confrontation with the samurai forces entrenched along the coastline.The two Mongol fleets, however, struggled with coordination. Bad weather, supply issues, and logistical delays plagued the campaign. When the Eastern Route fleet arrived off Kyushu’s coast, they hesitated, waiting for reinforcements from the Southern Route forces. This delay allowed the Japanese to fortify their defenses further.

Eastern Route Fleet Sets Sail

The Eastern Route army was supposed to wait for the Southern Route army at Iki, but their commanders, Hong Dagu and Kim Bang-gyeong, disobeyed orders and set out to invade Mainland Japan by themselves. They departed on 23 June, a full week ahead of the expected arrival of the Southern Route army on 2 July. The Eastern Route army split their forces in half and simultaneously attacked Hakata Bay and Nagato Province. The Eastern Route Army arrived at Hakata Bay on June 23. They were a short distance to the north and east of where their force had landed in 1274, and were in fact beyond the walls and defenses constructed by the Japanese. Some Mongol ships came ashore but were unable to make it past the defensive wall and were driven off by volleys of arrows. The samurai responded quickly, assaulting the invaders with waves of defenders, denying them the beachhead. At night small boats carried <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Samurai-Warfare-Way-of-the-Warrior' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>small bands of samurai</a> into the Yuan fleet in the bay. Under cover of darkness they boarded enemy ships, killed as many as they could, and withdrew before dawn. This harassing tactic led the Yuan forces to retreat to Tsushima, where they would wait for the Southern Route Army. However, over the course of the next several weeks, 3,000 men were killed in close quarters combat in the hot weather. Yuan forces never gained a beachhead.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/1200x/c7/37/79/c73779823c0316e0a799ed0327e036c8.jpg'>First and Second Battles of Hakata Bay 1274, 1281. © Anonymous

Second Battle of Hakata Bay

În timpul celei de -a doua invazii Mongol a Japoniei în 1281, forțele invadatoare au ocupat insulele Shika și Noko pentru a se pregăti pentru raiduri pe Hakata. Cu toate acestea, japonezii au lansat contraatacuri agresive, atacând navele mongol noaptea folosind bărci mici. Potrivit Hachiman Gudōkun, un războinic pe nume Kusano Jirō s -a urcat pe o navă mongol, a dat foc și a luat 21 de capete. A doua zi, Kawano Michiari a condus un raid îndrăzneț în timpul zilei, cu doar două bărci. Deși unchiul său Michitoki a fost ucis și Michiari însuși a fost rănit, a reușit să urce pe o navă inamică și să ucidă un mare războinic Mongol, obținând onoruri pentru vitejia sa. De asemenea, Takezaki Suenaga s -a distins în lupte, participând la atacuri și ajutând să alunge mongolii de pe insula Shika. Pe 30 iunie, invadatorii au fost nevoiți să se retragă la Iki. Aceste raiduri făceau parte din apărarea japoneză a golfului Hakata, cunoscută sub numele de Bătălia de la Kōan, un episod cheie în rezisterea invaziei mongolului.

Bătălia de la Koan: raiduri care au apărat Golful Hakata