When Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander, however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: 'My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you', and bought the horse for him. Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning 'ox-head'. Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Sultanate-of-Rum' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>India</a>. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.During his youth, Alexander was also acquainted with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a> exiles at the Macedonian court, who received the protection of Philip II for several years as they opposed Artaxerxes III. Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BCE, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines. This gave the Macedonian court a good knowledge of Persian issues, and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the Macedonian state.

Prologue

Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 336 BCE, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the 'Independent Thracians'; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.

Safeguard the North

The Macedonians marched to the Danube River where they encountered the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. As Alexander's ships failed to enter the river, Alexander's army made rafts out of their leather tents. A force of 4,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry crossed the river, to the amazement of the Getae army of 14,000 men. The Getae army retreated after the first cavalry skirmish, leaving their town to the Macedonian army.

Battle against the Getae

News then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.

Illyria

The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube).

Battle against the Triballi

While Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south. While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Battle of Thebes was a battle that took place between Alexander III of Macedon and the Greek city state of Thebes in 335 BCE immediately outside of and in the city proper. After having been made Hegemon of the League of Corinth, Alexander had marched to the north to deal with revolts in Illyria and Thrace. The garrison in Macedonia was weakened and Thebes declared its independence. The Thebans refused to submit on merciful terms, and he assaulted the city, took it, and sold all the survivors into slavery. With the destruction of Thebes, mainland Greece again acquiesced in Alexander's rule. Alexander was now finally free to undertake the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a> campaign which had been planned for so long by his father.

Battle of Thebes

The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace.Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.

Alexander returned to Macedonia

From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persians</a> naval bases.

Alexander reaches Antalya

Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a> satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.

Siege of Halicarnassus

Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BCE with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.

Hellespont

The Siege of Miletus was Alexander the Great's first siege and naval encounter with the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Achaemenid-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Achaemenid Empire</a>. This siege was directed against Miletus, a city in southern Ionia, which is now located in the Aydın province of modern-day Turkey. During the battle, Parmenion's son Philotas would be key in preventing the Persian Navy from finding safe anchorage. It was captured by Parmenion's son, Nicanor in 334 BCE.

Siege of Miletus

The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BCE was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian Empire</a>. Fought in northwestern Asia Minor, near the site of Troy, it was here that Alexander defeated the forces of the Persian satraps of Asia Minor, including a large force of Greek mercenaries led by Memnon of Rhodes. The battle took place on the road from Abydos to Dascylium (near modern-day Ergili, Turkey), at the crossing of the Granicus River (modern-day Biga Çayı). After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Battle_granicus.png'>Battle of the Granicus. © United States Military Academy

Battle of the Granicus

In spring 333 BCE, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to an illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius' significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure. He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Battle_issus_initial.png'>The Battle of Issus, Initial dispositions. © United States Military Academy<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Battle_issus_decisive.png'>The Battle of Issus, the decisive moment. © United States Military Academy

Battle of Issus

When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Egypt' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Egypt</a> quickly capitulated. However, Alexander met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When 'his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible... this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt'. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.

Siege of Gaza

He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with the horns of a ram as a symbol of his divinity.

Siwa Oasis

The Siege of Tyre in 332 BCE was one of Alexander the Great's most remarkable military achievements, highlighting his determination and ingenuity during his campaign against the Persian Empire. Tyre, a heavily fortified island city off the coast of present-day Lebanon, posed a strategic challenge as it was a vital naval base and the last Persian stronghold in the region.Tyre was divided between a mainland settlement and an island fortress about a kilometer offshore. The city’s high walls, skilled navy, and strategic location made it nearly impregnable. At the time of the siege, Tyre housed approximately 40,000 people, though women and children had been evacuated to Carthage. Alexander sought to conquer Tyre not only to deny the Persians their last naval harbor but also to secure his dominance over the Mediterranean trade routes. His initial request to enter the city to make a sacrifice at the temple of Melqart was denied, and his emissaries were killed, enraging Alexander and triggering the siege.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Siege_tryre.gif'>Siege of Tyre. © United States Military Academy﻿With no navy of his own, Alexander initially relied on an ambitious engineering solution. His forces constructed a massive causeway stretching from the mainland to the island, using a natural land bridge as its foundation. This allowed his siege engines, including towers and catapults, to approach the walls. However, the Tyrians countered by setting fire to the siege towers and launching naval attacks, temporarily halting construction. Alexander’s fortunes shifted when he gained a fleet of 223 warships, contributed by allied Phoenician cities and the king of Cyprus. With naval superiority, Alexander blockaded Tyre’s harbors and continued his assault on the walls. He used battering rams to breach the city's defenses, overcoming obstacles such as underwater stones and anchor-cutting divers. Eventually, Alexander's engineers created a breach in the southern wall, and his forces launched a coordinated attack from land and sea.Once inside, Alexander’s troops overwhelmed the Tyrian garrison. Tyrian resistance and the execution of Alexander’s captured soldiers during the siege fueled his wrath. According to accounts, around 8,000 Tyrians were killed, 2,000 were crucified along the shore, and 30,000 women and children were sold into slavery. Despite the destruction, Alexander spared those who sought sanctuary in the temple of Melqart, including the city’s king.

Siege of Tyre

During his stay in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Egypt' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Egypt</a>, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.

Alexandria

The Battle of Uxian Defile was fought by Alexander the Great against the Uxian tribe of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian Empire</a>. The battle raged on the mountain range between the key Persian cities of Susa and Persepolis. Persepolis was the ancient capital of the Persian Empire and held a symbolic value among the native Persian population. They believed that if this city were to fall into enemy hands, then, in effect, the whole Persian Empire would fall into the hands of the enemy.

Battle of the Uxian Defile

Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), while Alexander captured Babylon.

Babylon

Following his victory at the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE, Alexander had captured key territories in Asia Minor and the Levant, culminating in the conquests of Tyre and Gaza. Darius III, unable to stop Alexander's advance, sought peace through increasingly generous offers, including territorial concessions and a co-rulership arrangement. Alexander refused, determined to become the sole ruler of Asia. Darius responded by gathering an enormous army, recruiting soldiers from across his vast empire, including Greek mercenaries, cavalry, and war elephants. He prepared for a decisive confrontation on the plains of Gaugamela, near modern-day Erbil in Iraq.Alexander’s march from <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Egypt' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Egypt</a> to <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iraq' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Mesopotamia</a> was marked by strategic foresight. Avoiding a direct southern route through the sweltering plains of Babylon, he chose a northern path, which offered better supplies and cooler conditions. Crossing the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers unopposed, Alexander’s forces encountered Persian scouts and learned that Darius had stationed his army at Gaugamela, where the ground had been leveled for his chariots and cavalry.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Battle_of_Gaugamela%2C_331_BC_-_Opening_movements.png'>Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BCE - Initial dispositions and opening movements. © United States Military Academy<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Battle_gaugamela_decisive.png'>The Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander's Decisive Movement, 331 BCE. © United States Military AcademyDarius commanded a force vastly larger than Alexander's, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to over 250,000 troops. In contrast, Alexander’s army consisted of about 47,000 soldiers, including the famed Companion cavalry and the formidable Macedonian phalanx. However, the Persians' numerical advantage was offset by the poor training and equipment of many of their troops, in contrast to the disciplined and versatile Macedonian army.The engagement began with Alexander advancing in a wedge formation, drawing Darius's cavalry away from the center. The Macedonian infantry, arranged in a phalanx, engaged the Persian front lines, while Alexander led a decisive charge on the right flank. Persian chariots attempted to disrupt Alexander’s formations but were neutralized by Macedonian light infantry.As Darius’s cavalry pursued Alexander, a gap opened in the Persian center. Exploiting this weakness, Alexander led his Companion cavalry in a ferocious charge directly at Darius, shattering his personal guard. Panicked, Darius fled the battlefield, leaving his army leaderless. Meanwhile, on the Macedonian left flank, General Parmenion faced heavy Persian attacks but managed to hold his position long enough for Alexander to intervene.The Persian army dissolved into chaos as its soldiers fled. Alexander captured immense wealth, including Darius’s royal chariot and war elephants. Darius escaped with a small retinue but was later betrayed and murdered by his own satrap, Bessus. Alexander, honoring his fallen rival, buried Darius with full honors in Persepolis, the ceremonial heart of the Achaemenid Empire.The victory at Gaugamela secured Alexander’s control over Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. It marked the end of Persian resistance and the effective conclusion of the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander’s triumph at Gaugamela remains one of history’s most celebrated examples of tactical genius and decisive leadership.

Battle of Gaugamela

From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Achaemenid-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Achaemenid</a> capitals, and captured its treasury.

Susa

Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a> king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Achaemenid-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Achaemenid Empire</a> is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.

Media

Alexander sent the bulk of his army to the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a> ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes. Even as he watched the city burn, Alexander immediately began to regret his decision. Plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires, but that the flames had already spread to most of the city. Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning.

Persepolis

Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Afghanistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Afghanistan</a>, and Alexandria Eschate in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.

Central Asia

The Battle of the Persian Gate was a military conflict between a <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a> force, commanded by the satrap of Persis, Ariobarzanes, and the invading Hellenic League, commanded by Alexander the Great. In the winter of 330 BCE, Ariobarzanes led a last stand of the outnumbered Persian forces at the Persian Gates near Persepolis, holding back the Macedonian army for a month. Alexander eventually found a path to the rear of the Persians from the captured prisoners of war or a local shepherd, defeating the Persians and capturing Persepolis.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/74/Persiangatesmap.gif'>Battle of the Persian Gate map. © Livius, Marco Prins, Jona Lendering

Battle of the Persian Gate

Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.

Battle of Jaxartes

Cyropolis was the largest of seven towns in the region that Alexander the Great targeted for conquest in 329 BCE. His goal was the conquest of Sogdiana. Alexander first sent Craterus to Cyropolis, the largest of the Sogdian towns holding out against Alexander's forces. Craterus' instructions were to 'take up a position close to the town, surround it with a ditch and stockade, and then assemble such siege engines as might suit his purpose....'.Accounts of how the battle went differ among authors. Arrian cites Ptolemy as saying Cyropolis surrendered, and Arrian also states that according to Aristobulus the place was stormed and the town's inhabitants were massacred. Arrian also cites Ptolemy saying that he distributed the men among the army and ordered that they should be kept guarded in chains until he should depart from the country, so that none of those who had affected the revolt should be left behind.

Siege of Cyropolis

Spitamenes was a Sogdian warlord and the leader of the uprising in Sogdiana and Bactria against Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, in 329 BCE. He has been credited by modern historians as one of the most tenacious adversaries of Alexander.Spitamenes was an ally of Bessus. In 329, Bessus stirred a revolt in the eastern satrapies, and the same year his allies began to be uncertain about supporting him. Alexander went with his army to Drapsaca, outflanked Bessus and sent him fleeing. Bessus was then removed from power by Spitamenes, and Ptolemy was sent to catch him. While Alexander was founding the new city of Alexandria Eschate on the Jaxartes river, news came that Spitamenes had roused Sogdiana against him and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in Maracanda.Too occupied at that time to personally lead an army against Spitamenes, Alexander sent an army under the command of Pharnuches which was promptly annihilated with a loss of no less than 2000 infantry and 300 cavalry.The uprising now posed a direct threat to his army, and Alexander moved personally to relieve Maracanda, only to learn that Spitamenes had left Sogdiana and was attacking Bactria, from where he was repulsed with great difficulty by the satrap of Bactria, Artabazos II (328 BCE). The decisive point came in December 328 BCE when Spitamenes was defeated by Alexander's general Coenus at the Battle of Gabai. Spitamenes was killed by some treacherous nomadic tribes' leaders and they sent his head to Alexander, suing for peace. Spitamenes had a daughter, Apama, who was married to one of Alexander's most important generals and an eventual Diadochi, Seleucus I Nicator (February 324 BCE). The couple had a son, Antiochus I Soter, a future ruler of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seleucid-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seleucid Empire</a>.

Battle of Gabai

The Cophen campaign was conducted by Alexander the Great in the Kabul Valley between May 327 BCE and March 326 BCE. It was conducted against the Aspasioi, the Guraeans, and the Assakenoi tribes in the Kunar valley of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Afghanistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Afghanistan</a>, and Panjkora (Dir) and Swat valleys in what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Alexander's goal was to secure his line of communications so that he could conduct a campaign in India proper. To achieve this, he needed to capture a number of fortresses controlled by the local tribes.

Alexander in Afghanistan

The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes, a fortress located north of Bactria in Sogdiana (near Samarkand), ruled by Arimazes, was captured by the forces of Alexander the Great in the early spring of 327 BCE as part of his conquest of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Achaemenid-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Achaemenid Empire</a>.

Siege of the Sogdian Rock

In May 326 BCE, during his campaign to conquer the Indian subcontinent, Alexander the Great faced King Porus of the Pauravas in the legendary Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Jhelum). This battle, fought along the monsoon-swollen Hydaspes River in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, was one of Alexander's most challenging and strategically brilliant engagements, showcasing his tactical ingenuity and the formidable resistance of his Indian adversary.After defeating the remnants of the Persian Empire, Alexander turned his ambitions eastward, crossing the Khyber Pass into the Indian subcontinent in 327 BCE. He forged an alliance with Taxiles, the King of Taxila, who sought Alexander’s aid against his rival, Porus. Refusing Alexander's demands to surrender, Porus prepared for battle on the south bank of the Hydaspes, a position he believed was impenetrable. The river’s depth and swift currents made any crossing treacherous. Alexander, however, devised a masterful plan. Feigning movement up and down the river to confuse Porus, he identified a suitable crossing point upstream, concealed by a wooded island. In a stormy night maneuver, Alexander’s forces crossed the river in secrecy, using makeshift floats and smaller vessels. The Macedonian army, led personally by Alexander, surprised Porus’s son, who attempted to repel the invaders but was defeated and killed.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Battle_hydaspes_combined_at.png'>The Battle of Hydaspes, Combined arms attack. © United States Military Academy﻿Porus, undeterred, advanced with his main force. His army included war elephants, heavily armored infantry, and cavalry, which were formidable adversaries for Alexander’s phalanx and horsemen. The battle commenced with a fierce exchange. Alexander’s cavalry outflanked and routed the Indian horsemen, while the Macedonian phalanx, supported by light infantry, engaged Porus’s war elephants. Despite the elephants wreaking havoc on the Macedonian ranks, Alexander’s troops used coordinated attacks to exploit their weaknesses, eventually turning the animals into a liability as they panicked and trampled their own forces.The tide turned decisively when Alexander’s forces executed a hammer-and-anvil tactic, pinning Porus’s army between the phalanx and cavalry. Exhausted and overwhelmed, Porus’s troops were routed. Though suffering heavier losses than in his previous battles, Alexander emerged victorious. Impressed by Porus’s valor and leadership, Alexander asked how he wished to be treated. Porus’s legendary reply, “Like a king,” earned him Alexander’s respect. Rather than punish him, Alexander reinstated Porus as satrap of his kingdom and even granted him additional territory. The battle marked a significant milestone in Alexander’s campaign, as it extended his influence into the Punjab region and exposed Indian and Greek cultures to one another. However, it also marked the limits of his eastern ambitions. Shortly after the Hydaspes, Alexander’s army, weary from years of campaigning and apprehensive about facing the vast armies of the Nanda Empire, refused to march further east at the Hyphasis River. Reluctantly, Alexander turned back, securing his conquests as he descended along the Indus.

Battle of the Hydaspes

East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east

Revolt of the Army

The Mallian campaign was conducted by Alexander the Great from November 326 to February 325 BCE, against the Malli of the Punjab. Alexander was defining the eastern limit of his power by marching down-river along the Hydaspes to the Acesines (now the Jhelum and Chenab), but the Malli and the Oxydraci combined to refuse passage through their territory. Alexander sought to prevent their forces meeting, and made a swift campaign against them which successfully pacified the region between the two rivers. Alexander was seriously injured during the course of the campaign, almost losing his life.

Mallian campaign

On either 10 or 11 June 323 BCE, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander's death, and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa. Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony. Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.

Death of Alexander the Great

Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests, and his reign marked a turning point in European and Asian history. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some 5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi), and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India#Maurya-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Maurya Empire</a>. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius began his Histories by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet 'Magnus' and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile.

Epilogue

Asediul Miletus a fost prima întâlnire de asediu și navală a lui Alexandru cel mare al lui <a href="https://history-maps.com/ro/story/Achaemenid-Empire" target="_blank">Achaemenid</a> . Acest asediu a fost îndreptat împotriva Miletus, un oraș din sudul Ionia, care este acum situat în provincia Aydın din Turcia modernă. În timpul bătăliei, fiul lui Parmenion, Philotas, ar fi esențial pentru a împiedica marina persană să găsească o ancorare sigură. A fost capturat de fiul lui Parmenion, Nicanor în 334 î.Hr.

Asediul Miletului