The Battle of Manzikert, fought in 1071, marked a turning point in Byzantine history and set the stage for the First Crusade. Although the immediate impact of the battle was not catastrophic, its long-term effects were profound, reshaping the balance of power in the Eastern Mediterranean and indirectly spurring the Crusader movement.At Manzikert, the Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes faced the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuk Turks</a> under Sultan Alp Arslan. Miscommunication and internal betrayal, notably by Andronikos Doukas, led to Romanos' capture, though the Seljuks soon released him. While the battle itself inflicted relatively low casualties and did not immediately alter the balance of power, it highlighted the vulnerabilities of the Byzantine military and administration. The empire quickly spiraled into a civil war as rival factions vied for control, with Michael VII eventually emerging as emperor.The aftermath of Manzikert proved far more damaging than the battle itself. Byzantine control over Anatolia, the empire’s economic and military heartland, disintegrated as Seljuk forces and Turkic migrants occupied the region. The loss of this territory deprived Byzantium of critical resources and strategic depth, rendering the empire increasingly reliant on foreign mercenaries and reducing its capacity to project power.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/1200x/56/60/08/5660087cd14178aa6b2b832a4ce06cf7.jpg'>The Byzantine Empire 1000-1100. @ AnonymousBy the late 11th century, the Seljuk capital at Nicaea (Iznik) threatened Byzantine influence near Constantinople. Facing mounting external pressure and internal decay, Emperor <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Byzantine-Empire-Komnenian-Dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Alexios I Komnenos</a> sought assistance from Western Europe. His call for aid in 1095 would lead to Pope Urban II's proclamation of the First Crusade. The crusaders were initially envisioned as reinforcements to help Byzantium recover lost territories, particularly Anatolia.

Byzantine Appeal to the West

The Council of Clermont, held from November 17–27, 1095, was a pivotal moment that launched the First Crusade. Convened by Pope Urban II in the Duchy of Aquitaine, the council primarily addressed church reforms, including the extension of excommunication against Philip I of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> and the renewal of the Truce of God to curb feuding among Frankish nobles. However, it is most remembered for Urban’s rousing call to arms on the final day.The impetus for Urban’s speech stemmed from a request by Byzantine Emperor Alexios I <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Byzantine-Empire-Komnenian-Dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Komnenos</a>, who sought Western military assistance against the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuk Turks</a> threatening his empire. Urban framed his appeal as both a spiritual mission and a practical response to the crisis facing <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Christianity' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Eastern Christians</a>. He described the Turks’ conquests in Anatolia and the suffering of Christian communities, urging the faithful to aid their 'brothers in the East' and liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Land.Urban’s speech, as recorded by contemporaries such as Fulcher of Chartres and later chroniclers like Robert the Monk, emphasized the spiritual rewards of the endeavor, including remission of sins and eternal salvation for those who fought. He portrayed the crusade as a chance for redemption, calling on knights and commoners to redirect their violence from internal feuds to a holy cause. The phrase Deus vult ('God wills it') became a rallying cry, reflecting the audience's fervent response.The council’s call quickly spread through Europe, inspiring thousands to take the cross. Urban’s framing of the crusade as both a just war and a pilgrimage provided the ideological foundation for the First Crusade, which aimed to reclaim Jerusalem and safeguard Christian holy sites. The Council of Clermont thus marked the formal beginning of a movement that would reshape medieval Christendom and the Mediterranean world.

Council of Clermont

The causes of the First Crusade are widely debated among historians. By the start of the 11th century Europe, the influence of the papacy had declined to that of little more than a localised bishopric.Compared with Western Europe, the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world were historic centres of wealth, culture and military power. The first waves of Turkic migration into the Middle East enjoined Arab and Turkic history from the 9th century. The status quo in Western Asia was challenged by later waves of Turkish migration, particularly the arrival of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuk Turks</a> in the 10th century.

Prologue 

Then they marched for seven days, arriving at Niš on 3 July. There, the commander of Niš promised to provide escort for Peter's army to Constantinople as well as food, if he would leave right away. Peter obliged, and the next morning he set out. However, a few Germans got into a dispute with some locals along the road and set fire to a mill, which escalated out of Peter's control until Niš sent out its entire garrison against the crusaders. The crusaders were completely routed, losing about 10,000 (a quarter of their number), the remainder regrouping further on at Bela Palanka. When they reached Sofia on 12 July they met their Byzantine escort, which brought them safely the rest of the way to Constantinople by 1 August.

Trouble at Niš

The People's Crusade, the initial phase of the First Crusade, was an unorganized and largely spontaneous movement of untrained peasants, low-ranking knights, and some women and children, driven by religious fervor and social desperation. Sparked by Pope Urban II’s call to arms at the Council of Clermont in 1095, it began independently of the planned and organized crusade set to depart in August 1096.Led by Peter the Hermit, a charismatic preacher, and Walter Sans Avoir, a minor knight, the movement took shape amid widespread hardship. Years of drought, famine, and disease had left many seeking relief, while millenarian beliefs and celestial events such as meteor showers and comets were interpreted as divine signs endorsing the journey. Peter’s impassioned sermons, claiming divine inspiration, galvanized thousands, and his followers often saw him as the true spiritual leader of the crusade.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/People%27s_Crusade_%28cs%29.JPG/1280px-People%27s_Crusade_%28cs%29.JPG'>Map of the People's Crusade. © Historical Atlas by William Shepherd (1923-26)Despite its religious zeal, the People's Crusade lacked the preparation, discipline, and resources of the official crusade. It attracted an estimated 100,000 participants, mostly unskilled in warfare, though some experienced minor knights joined the ranks. Many participants were inspired not only by spiritual salvation but also by the hope of escape from their difficult circumstances, propelling the movement into an uncoordinated but fervent march toward Jerusalem.

People's Crusade

At a local level, the preaching of the First Crusade ignited the Rhineland massacres perpetrated against Jews. At the end of 1095 and beginning of 1096, months before the departure of the official crusade in August, there were attacks on Jewish communities in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a>. In May 1096, Emicho of Flonheim (sometimes incorrectly known as Emicho of Leiningen) attacked the Jews at Speyer and Worms. Other unofficial crusaders from Swabia, led by Hartmann of Dillingen, along with French, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>English</a>, Lotharingian and Flemish volunteers, led by Drogo of Nesle and William the Carpenter, as well as many locals, joined Emicho in the destruction of the Jewish community of Mainz at the end of May. In Mainz, one Jewish woman killed her children rather than see them killed; the chief rabbi, Kalonymus Ben Meshullam, committed suicide in anticipation of being killed.Emicho's company then went on to Cologne, and others continued on to Trier, Metz, and other cities. Peter the Hermit may have been involved in violence against the Jews, and an army led by a priest named Folkmar also attacked Jews further east in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Czechia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bohemia</a>.

Rhineland massacres

Back at the main crusaders' camp, two Turkish spies had spread rumors that the Germans who had taken Xerigordos had also taken Nicaea, which caused excitement to get there as soon as possible to share in the looting. Three miles from the camp, where the road entered a narrow, wooded valley near the village of Dracon, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Sultanate-of-Rum#First-Crusade:-Battle-of-Civetot' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Turkish army</a> was waiting. When approaching the valley, the crusaders marched noisily and were immediately subjected to a hail of arrows. Panic set in immediately and within minutes, the army was in full rout back to the camp. Most of the crusaders were slaughtered; however, women, children, and those who surrendered were spared. Eventually the Byzantines under Constantine Katakalon sailed over and raised the siege; these few thousand returned to Constantinople, the only survivors of the People's Crusade.

Battle of Civetot 

Between September 21–29, 1096, a <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>German</a> contingent of approximately 6,000 crusaders, led by Reinald of Broyes, captured the Turkish fortress of Xerigordos, four days’ march east of Nicaea. The aim was to establish a base for further pillaging in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuk</a> territory.Three days later, Seljuk forces under Elchanes, a general of Sultan Kilij Arslan I, arrived and besieged the poorly prepared crusaders. Without access to a water supply inside the fortress, the defenders suffered severe thirst and resorted to desperate measures such as drinking animal blood and urine to survive. After enduring eight days of siege, the crusaders surrendered on September 29. Some were killed for refusing to convert to Islam, while others who converted were enslaved.The fall of Xerigordos exposed the vulnerability of the People's Crusade, highlighting their lack of strategic planning and resources. It emboldened Kilij Arslan to prepare for further attacks, leading to the eventual ambush of the main crusader force at the Battle of Civetot.

Siege of Xerigordos

In the spring of 1096, inspired by Pope Urban II's call to reclaim Jerusalem, a vast multitude of European peasants and low-ranking knights embarked on what became known as the People's Crusade. Departing from Cologne around April 20, 1096, approximately 40,000 crusaders set forth. This movement, led by figures like Peter the Hermit and Walter Sans Avoir, was characterized by its lack of formal organization and the diverse backgrounds of its participants.As these groups journeyed through Europe, they encountered various challenges. Walter Sans Avoir's contingent, one of the first to set out, traversed the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Hungary-Kingdom-of-Hungary-Early-Medieval' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Kingdom of Hungary</a> without significant incident. King Coloman of Hungary, upon learning of their peaceful intentions, granted them safe passage and permission to trade within his realm. This facilitated their journey to Belgrade and further into the Byzantine Empire. Upon reaching the Danube River, the Crusaders split into two groups: one traveled by boat down the river, while the main body proceeded overland, entering Hungary at Sopron. Initially, their passage through Hungary was uneventful, and they reunited with the Danube contingent at Zemun, near the Byzantine frontier.In contrast, another faction led by Count Emicho of Flonheim became notorious for instigating violence against Jewish communities in the Rhineland. Emicho's forces perpetrated massacres in cities such as Mainz, Worms, and Cologne, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Jews. When Emicho's army reached Hungary, their reputation for violence preceded them. King Coloman, wary of their intentions, denied them entry. Undeterred, Emicho's forces attempted to force their way through, leading to confrontations with Hungarian troops. The Hungarian army decisively defeated Emicho's contingent, effectively ending their participation in the crusade.

Cologne to Hungary

In Zemun, the crusaders became suspicious, seeing Walter's sixteen suits of armor hanging from the walls, and eventually a dispute over the price of a pair of shoes in the market led to a riot, which then turned into an all-out assault on the city by the crusaders, in which 4,000 Hungarians were killed. The crusaders then fled across the river Sava to Belgrade, but only after skirmishing with Belgrade troops. The residents of Belgrade fled, and the crusaders pillaged and burned the city.

Trouble in Belgrade 

When the People's Crusade reached Constantinople in 1 August 1096, Emperor <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Byzantine-Empire-Komnenian-Dynasty#The-First-Crusade' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Alexios I Comnenus</a> faced the daunting task of managing a massive, undisciplined crowd of crusaders. Led by Peter the Hermit and Walter Sans Avoir, the group included peasants, minor knights, and noncombatants, totaling tens of thousands. Their arrival created logistical and political challenges for the Byzantine capital.Alexios, skeptical of the crusaders' military capabilities and wary of their unruly behavior, was eager to move them out of Constantinople quickly to avoid potential unrest. He provided food and supplies to placate the group and arranged for their swift transport across the Bosphorus into Asia Minor by 6 August. The emperor hoped to prevent any incidents in the city and keep the movement focused on its stated goal of fighting the Seljuk Turks, rather than causing disruptions within Byzantine territory. Alexius warned Peter not to engage the Turks, whom he believed to be superior to Peter's motley army, and to wait for the main body of crusaders, which was still on the way.

People's Crusade in Constantinople

Peter was rejoined by the French under Walter Sans-Avoir and a number of bands of Italian crusaders who had arrived at the same time. Once in Asia Minor, they began to pillage towns and villages until they reached Nicomedia, where an argument broke out between the Germans and Italians on one side and the French on the other. The Germans and Italians split off and elected a new leader, an Italian named Rainald, while for the French, Geoffrey Burel took command. Peter had effectively lost control of the crusade.

People's Crusade in Asia Minor 

The main crusader armies of the First Crusade began arriving in Constantinople between November 1096 and April 1097, after departing from Europe in August 1096. Composed of forces led by prominent leaders such as Bohemond of Taranto, Godfrey of Bouillon, and Raymond of Toulouse, the crusaders gathered outside the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Byzantine-Empire-Komnenian-Dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Byzantine</a> capital, expecting support from Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. <img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Map_of_First_Crusade_-_Roads_of_main_armies-fi.png'>The routes of the First Crusade leaders. © QWerkAlexios, however, was cautious, especially after the chaos caused by the People's Crusade and the presence of Bohemond, a former <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Norman-Conquest-of-Southern-Italy' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Norman</a> adversary who had previously invaded Byzantine lands. While the crusaders may have hoped Alexios would take on a leadership role, he was more focused on ensuring their swift passage into Asia Minor to avoid potential unrest near Constantinople. To secure food and supplies, Alexios required the crusader leaders to swear oaths of fealty to him, promising to return any territories they captured from the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuks</a> to Byzantine control. Reluctantly, the leaders complied. Alexios also offered strategic advice on how to confront the Seljuk forces they would face in Anatolia. His pragmatic approach ensured the crusaders’ movement across the Bosporus while maintaining Byzantine interests.

Princes' Crusade

Walter Sans Avoir, a few thousand French crusaders left before Peter and reached Hungary on 8 May, passing through Hungary without incident and arriving at the river Sava at the border of the Byzantine territory at Belgrade. The Belgrade commander was taken by surprise, having no orders on what to do with them, and refused entry, forcing the crusaders to pillage the countryside for food. This resulted in skirmishes with the Belgrade garrison and, to make matters worse, sixteen of Walter's men had tried to rob a market in Zemun across the river in Hungary and were stripped of their armor and clothing, which was hung from the castle walls.

Walter Sans Avoir 

The crusaders had left Nicaea on 26 June 1097, with a deep distrust of the Byzantines, who had taken the city without their knowledge after the lengthy siege of Nicaea. In order to simplify the problem of supplies, the Crusader army had split into two groups; the weaker led by Bohemond of Taranto, his nephew Tancred, Robert Curthose, Robert of Flanders, and the Byzantine general Tatikios in the vanguard, and Godfrey of Bouillon, his brother Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, Stephen II of Blois, and Hugh of Vermandois in the rear.On 29 June, they learnt that the Turks were planning an ambush near Dorylaeum (Bohemond noticed that his army was being shadowed by Turkish scouts). The Turkish force, consisting of Kilij Arslan and his ally Hasan of Cappadocia, along with help from the Danishmends, led by the Turkish prince Gazi Gümüshtigin. Contemporary figures place the number of Turks as between 25,000–30,000, with more recent estimates are between 6,000 and 8,000 men.The Battle of Dorylaeum took place during the First Crusade on 1 July 1097, between the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuk Turks</a> and the Crusaders, near the city of Dorylaeum in Anatolia. Despite the Turkish forces of Kilij Arslan almost destroying the Crusader contingent of Bohemond, other Crusaders arrived just in time for a very close victory. The crusaders did indeed become rich, at least for a short time, after capturing Kilij Arslan's treasury. The Turks fled and Arslan turned to other concerns in his eastern territory.

Battle of Dorylaeum

After the crusaders’ victory at the Battle of Dorylaeum in July 1097, they pressed forward through Anatolia toward their ultimate goal: Jerusalem. Along the way, they reached Antioch—a heavily fortified city of immense strategic value that controlled access between Anatolia and Syria. Antioch was ruled by Yaghi-Siyan, a <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuk</a> governor, and its capture was essential to the crusaders' progress toward Palestine. The Siege of Antioch became one of the most challenging and decisive events of the First Crusade.The first siege began on October 21, 1097. Although the crusaders positioned themselves along the city’s walls, they lacked the manpower to launch a direct assault. Antioch’s massive Byzantine-era fortifications—enhanced over centuries—made it nearly impossible to breach. As the siege dragged on into winter, the crusaders’ situation became desperate. Starvation spread among the army, with some men deserting. Supply shortages left only a few hundred horses alive. The crusaders managed to defeat two small relief forces: one from Duqaq of Damascus in December 1097 and another led by Ridwan of Aleppo in February 1098. Yet morale remained low, and famine continued to weaken them.

Siege of Antioch

The crusaders began to leave Constantinople at the end of April 1097. Godfrey of Bouillon was the first to arrive at Nicaea, with Bohemond of Taranto, Bohemond's nephew Tancred, Raymond IV of Toulouse, and Robert II of Flanders following him, along with Peter the Hermit and some of the survivors of the People's Crusade, and a small <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Byzantine-Empire-Komnenian-Dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Byzantine</a> force under Manuel Boutoumites. They arrived on 6 May, severely short of food, but Bohemond arranged for food to be brought by land and by sea. They put the city to siege beginning on 14 May, assigning their forces to different sections of the walls, which was well-defended with 200 towers. Bohemond camped on the north side of the city, Godfrey on the south, and Raymond and Adhemar of Le Puy on the eastern gate.On 16 May the Turkish defenders sallied out to attack the crusaders, but the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Sultanate-of-Rum' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Turks</a> were defeated in a skirmish with the loss of 200 men. The Turks sent messages to Kilij Arslan begging him to return, and when he realized the strength of the crusaders he quickly turned back. An advance party was defeated by troops under Raymond and Robert II of Flanders on 20 May, and on 21 May the crusader army defeated Kilij in a pitched battle which lasted long into the night. Losses were heavy on both sides, but in the end the sultan retreated despite the pleas of the Nicaean Turks. The rest of the crusaders arrived throughout the rest of May, with Robert Curthose and Stephen of Blois arriving at the beginning of June. Meanwhile, Raymond and Adhemar built a large siege engine, which was rolled up to the Gonatas Tower in order to engage the defenders on the walls while miners mined the tower from below. The tower was damaged but no further progress was made.Byzantine emperor Alexios I chose not to accompany the crusaders, but marched out behind them and made his camp at nearby Pelekanon. From there, he sent boats, rolled over the land, to help the crusaders blockade Lake Ascanius, which had up to this point been used by the Turks to supply Nicaea with food. The boats arrived on 17 June, under the command of Manuel Boutoumites. The general Tatikios was also sent, with 2,000 foot soldiers. Alexios had instructed Boutoumites to secretly negotiate the surrender of the city without the crusaders' knowledge. Tatikios was instructed to join with the crusaders and make a direct assault on the walls, while Boutoumites would pretend to do the same to make it look as if the Byzantines had captured the city in battle. This was done, and on 19 June the Turks surrendered to Boutoumites.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/1200x/bd/26/3e/bd263ee8d15f847ac7f8426aade6e69b.jpg'>Siege of Nicaea 1097. © HistoryMapsWhen the crusaders discovered what Alexios had done, they were quite angry, as they had hoped to plunder the city for money and supplies. Boutoumites, however, was named dux of Nicaea and forbade the crusaders from entering in groups larger than 10 men at a time. Boutoumites also expelled the Turkish generals, whom he considered just as untrustworthy. Kilij Arslan's family went to Constantinople and were eventually released without ransom. Alexios gave the crusaders money, horses, and other gifts, but the crusaders were not pleased with this, believing they could have had even more if they had captured Nicaea themselves. Boutoumites would not permit them to leave until they had all sworn an oath of vassalage to Alexios, if they had not yet done so in Constantinople. As he had in Constantinople, Tancred at first refused, but he eventually gave in.The crusaders left Nicaea on 26 June in two contingents: Bohemond, Tancred, Robert II of Flanders, and Tatikios in the vanguard, and Godfrey, Baldwin of Boulogne, Stephen, and Hugh of Vermandois in the rear. Tatikios was instructed to ensure the return of captured cities to the empire. Their spirits were high, and Stephen wrote to his wife Adela that they expected to be in Jerusalem in five weeks.

Siege of Nicaea

After defeating Kilij Arslan, the Seljuk Sultan of Rûm, in the Battle of Dorylaeum on July 1, 1097, Baldwin and Tancred broke away from the main Crusader army, marching as far as Heraclea and rejoining their fellows around August 15. The crusaders, exhausted from their long march across Asia Minor, lost most of their horses. To secure food and forage, Baldwin and Tancred were sent to the fertile plains of Cilicia, where local Armenians supported them due to Baldwin’s friendship with an Armenian nobleman, Bagrat.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Map_to_illustrate_the_First_Crusade%2C_H._G._Wells%27_Outline_of_History%2C_page_342.jpg'>Map to illustrate the First Crusade. © J. F. HorrabinBaldwin and Tancred led separate contingents. Tancred, with 100-200 troops, reached Tarsus on September 21, persuading the Seljuk garrison to raise his flag. Baldwin, arriving the next day with 300 knights, took possession of two towers after replacing Tancred's banner with his own. Heavily outnumbered, Tancred departed. Baldwin denied entry to 300 arriving Norman knights, who were then attacked and killed by Turks. Baldwin’s men blamed him and massacred the remaining Seljuk garrison. Baldwin took shelter in a tower but eventually convinced his men of his innocence. He then hired Guynemer of Boulogne, a pirate captain who had sworn fealty to him, to garrison Tarsus.Tancred seized Mamistra, a prosperous town, which Baldwin reached around September 30. Richard of Salerno, an Italian Norman, sought revenge for the Normans killed at Tarsus, leading to a skirmish between Baldwin’s and Tancred’s soldiers—the first instance of crusaders fighting each other. After casualties on both sides, Baldwin and Tancred made peace, and Baldwin left Mamistra, joining the main army at Marash. Bagrat persuaded him to campaign towards the River Euphrates, a region densely populated by Armenians. Baldwin left the main army on October 17 with 80-100 knights.The Armenians regarded Baldwin as a liberator. Two Armenian chiefs, Fer and Nicusus, joined him. The local population either massacred Seljuk garrisons and officials or forced them to flee. The Seljuks’ fear of the crusaders facilitated Baldwin's success. He seized the fortresses of Ravendel and Turbessel without a fight by the end of 1097, appointing Bagrat as the governor of Ravendel and Fer to administer Turbessel.

Armenian Interlude

The Battle of Antioch in June 1098 marked a dramatic turning point in the First Crusade, concluding the months-long siege of the city and the subsequent attempt by Kerbogha, atabeg of Mosul, to reclaim it. After successfully capturing Antioch from Muslim forces, the Crusaders found themselves trapped within the city as Kerbogha’s coalition arrived to besiege them. The resulting battle demonstrated both the tactical ingenuity of the Crusaders and the fragile cohesion of Kerbogha’s forces.As the Crusaders, weakened by starvation and illness, emerged from the city gates to confront Kerbogha's larger army, his commanders urged an immediate attack. However, Kerbogha hesitated, fearing a premature strike might expose his own forces to heavy losses. This indecision gave the Crusaders a critical opportunity to organize their six regiments under experienced leaders such as Bohemond of Taranto.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/A_history_of_the_art_of_war%2C_the_middle_ages_from_the_fourth_to_the_fourteenth_century_%281898%29_-_Siege_and_the_battle_of_Antioch_%281098%29_-_map.jpg'>Battle of Antioch 1098 CE. @ Charles Oman﻿Despite Kerbogha’s attempt to lure the Crusaders into uneven terrain and harass them with horse archers, the Crusaders anticipated his maneuvers. Bohemond countered by deploying a seventh division under Rainald III of Toul to hold off flanking attacks. As the battle progressed, the morale of Kerbogha’s forces began to crumble. Disunity plagued the Muslim coalition, with several emirs—including Duqaq of Damascus—deserting the battlefield, spreading panic among the remaining troops. Religious fervor also bolstered the Crusaders, who believed they saw divine visions of saints fighting alongside them.Kerbogha’s army collapsed into disarray, fleeing toward Mosul as the Crusaders pursued them, inflicting heavy losses. This resounding victory ended the immediate threat to Antioch and secured the city for the Crusaders. Kerbogha’s defeat not only shattered his ambitions of regional dominance but also underscored the fragility of his coalition, which failed to match the unity and determination of the Crusaders.

Battle of Antioch

While the main crusader army was marching across Asia Minor in 1097, Baldwin and the Norman Tancred launched a separate expedition against <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Armenian-Kingdom-of-Cilicia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Cilicia</a>. Tancred tried to capture Tarsus in September, but Baldwin forced him to leave it, which gave rise to an enduring conflict between them. Baldwin seized important fortresses in the lands to the west of the Euphrates with the assistance of local <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Armenian-Kingdom-of-Cilicia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenians</a>.The Armenian lord of Edessa, Thoros, sent envoys—the Armenian bishop of Edessa and twelve leading citizens—to Baldwin in early 1098, seeking his assistance against the nearby <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuqs</a> rulers. Being the first town to convert to Christianity, Edessa had played an important role in Christian history. Baldwin left for Edessa in early February, but troops sent by Balduk, the emir of Samosata, or Bagrat prevented him from crossing the Euphrates. His second attempt was successful and he reached Edessa on 20 February. Baldwin did not want to serve Thoros as a mercenary. The Armenian townspeople feared that he was planning to leave the town, so they persuaded Thoros to adopt him. Strengthened by troops from Edessa, Baldwin raided Balduk's territory and placed a garrison in a small fortress near Samosata.Unlike the majority of the Armenians, Thoros adhered to the Orthodox Church, which made him unpopular among his Monophysite subjects. Shortly after Baldwin's return from campaign, the local nobles started plotting against Thoros, possibly with Baldwin's consent (as is stated by contemporary chronicler Matthew of Edessa). A riot broke out in the town, forcing Thoros to take refuge in the citadel. Baldwin pledged to save his adoptive father, but when the rioters broke into the citadel on 9 March and murdered both Thoros and his wife, he did nothing to help them. On the following day, after the townspeople acknowledged Baldwin as their ruler (or doux), he assumed the title of Count of Edessa, and so established the first <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crusader-States-Outremer' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Crusader state</a>.To strengthen his rule, the widowed Baldwin married an Armenian ruler's daughter (who is now known as Arda). He supplied the main crusader army with food during the siege of Antioch. He defended Edessa against Kerbogha, the governor of Mosul, for three weeks, preventing him from reaching Antioch before the crusaders captured it.

Baldwin captures Edessa 

Bohemond of Taranto, an ambitious Norman leader, began conspiring to claim Antioch for himself. Bohemond persuaded the other leaders that if Antioch fell he would keep it for himself. He reached out to an insider, Firouz, an <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Armenia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenian</a> guard of one of the city towers, who agreed to betray the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuks</a> in exchange for wealth. Stephen of Blois had been his only competitor and while deserting his message to Alexius that the cause was lost persuaded the Emperor to halt his advance through Anatolia at Philomelium before returning to Constantinople. Alexius failure to reach the siege was used by Bohemond to rationalise his refusal to return the city to the Empire as promised.On the night of June 2-3, 1098, Bohemond’s men scaled the walls with Firouz’s help, opening the gates for the rest of the crusaders. The city fell, and Yaghi-Siyan was killed while fleeing. The city's Christian majority opened the other gates and the crusaders entered. In the sack they killed most of the Muslim inhabitants and many Christian Greeks, Syrians and Armenians in the confusion. However, the Turkish garrison in the citadel still held out, and the crusaders were now trapped inside the city as a new danger approached.

Bohemond takes Antioch

In 1098, Kerbogha, atabeg of Mosul, marched to relieve Antioch after hearing of its siege by the Crusaders. Departing on March 31, he paused to besiege Edessa, recently taken by Baldwin I, hoping to eliminate a Frankish threat behind him. This delay proved critical, as it allowed the Crusaders to capture Antioch on June 3, before Kerbogha’s arrival on June 7. By then, the Crusaders held the city but were besieged themselves by Kerbogha’s forces.Inside Antioch, the Crusaders were demoralized until Peter Bartholomew’s claimed discovery of the Holy Lance reinvigorated them. Meanwhile, Kerbogha’s coalition, composed of Turkmen and levies from Mosul, Damascus, and other regions, was rife with infighting. Many emirs feared Kerbogha’s ultimate goal of regional dominance, which undermined their unity. His rejection of a duel proposed by Peter the Hermit on June 27 reflected his confidence, but discontent among his allies weakened his position, setting the stage for the decisive Battle of Antioch.

Kerbogha and the Holy Lance

The crusaders reached Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuqs</a> by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Fatimid-Caliphate' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Fatimids</a> only the Year before, on 7 June. Many Crusaders wept upon seeing the city they had journeyed so long to reach. The Fatimid governor Iftikhar al-Dawla prepared the city for the siege as he heard about the arrival of the Crusaders. He prepared an elite troop of 400 <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Egypt' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Egyptian</a> cavalry men and had expelled all the eastern Christians from the city due to the fear of betrayal from them (in the siege of Antioch an <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Armenia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenian</a> man named Firoz helped crusaders enter the city by opening the gates). To make the situation worse for the crusaders, ad-Daula poisoned or buried all the water wells, and cut down all trees outside Jerusalem. On 7 June 1099, the crusaders reached outside the fortifications of Jerusalem, which had been recaptured from the Seljuqs by the Fatimids only the Year before. The city was guarded by a defense wall 4 km long, 3 meters thick and 15 meters high, there were five major gates each guarded by a pair of towers. The Crusaders divided themselves into two large groups- Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert of Flanders and Tancred planned to besiege from north while, Raymond of Toulouse positioned his forces on the south.

Siege of Jerusalem

On July 22, 1099, shortly after the capture of Jerusalem, a council convened at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to determine the city's governance. With no clear religious leader available following the death of the Greek Patriarch, the council faced political and spiritual considerations. Raymond of Toulouse, once a leading figure in the crusade, declined the crown, claiming it could only be worn by Christ. This decision may have been a strategic move to dissuade others from claiming the title, but his influence had already waned due to previous failures, such as the unsuccessful siege of Arqa. Godfrey of Bouillon, supported by the powerful army from Lorraine and his family's prominent position, was elected as leader. He accepted the title Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri (Defender of the Holy Sepulchre) rather than king, reflecting his recognition of the city's religious significance. Raymond, frustrated by this development, attempted to seize the Tower of David before ultimately departing the city. Meanwhile, Pope Urban II, who had initiated the First Crusade, died on July 29, 1099, unaware of the Crusaders’ victory. He was succeeded by Pope Paschal II, who would lead the Church for nearly two decades. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crusader-States-Outremer' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, established after these events, lasted until 1291, though Jerusalem itself would fall to Saladin in 1187, following the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Third-Crusade' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Battle of Hattin</a>.

Kingdom of Jerusalem

On 14 July 1099, the crusaders launched their attack, Godfrey and his allies were positioned towards the Northern wall of Jerusalem, their priority was to break through the outer curtain of the walls of Jerusalem. By the end of the day they penetrated the first line of defense. On the South Raymond's (of Toulouse) forces were met with ferocious resistance by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Fatimid-Caliphate' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Fatimids</a>. On 15 of July the assault recommenced in the Northern front, Godfrey and his allies gained success and the crusader Ludolf of Tournai was the first to mount the wall. The Franks quickly gained the foothold in the wall, and as the city's defenses collapsed, waves of panic shook the Fatimids.

Final Assault on Jerusalem 

The aftermath of the Crusaders' capture of Jerusalem in July 1099 was marked by widespread massacre and devastation. Thousands of Muslims and Jews were killed, as the Crusaders showed little distinction between combatants and non-combatants. Contemporary accounts describe the slaughter as particularly savage, with the Temple Mount's Muslim holy sites converted into Christian shrines. While atrocities following sieges were common in medieval warfare, for both Christians and Muslims, the scale of the massacre in Jerusalem shocked observers. It likely exceeded the norms of the time, as the Crusaders sought to assert their dominance over the newly captured Holy City. This event remains one of the most infamous episodes of the First Crusade, underscoring the brutal nature of the conflict.

Massacre of Jerusalem

Robert of Normandy and Robert of Flanders procured timber from the nearby forests. Under the command of Guglielmo Embriaco and Gaston of Béarn, the crusaders began the construction of their siege weapons. They constructed the finest siege equipment of the 11th century in almost 3 weeks. This included: 2 massive wheel-mounted siege towers, a battering ram with an iron-clad head, numerous scaling ladders and a series of portable wattle screens. On the other hand the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Fatimid-Caliphate' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Fatimids</a> kept an eye on the preparation by the Franks and they set up their mangonels on the wall in the firing range once an assault began. The preparation by the crusaders was complete.

Siege towers 

A small fleet of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Republic-of-Genoa' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Genoese</a> and English ships arrives at the port of Jaffa bringing essential supplies for siege weapons to the First Crusaders at Jerusalem. The Genoese sailors had brought all the necessary equipment with them for the construction of the siege equipments.

Supplies and siege weapons arrive 

The Battle of Ascalon, fought on August 12, 1099, was the concluding military engagement of the First Crusade. Occurring shortly after the Crusaders captured Jerusalem on July 15, it marked their decisive victory over a <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Fatimid-Caliphate' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Fatimid</a> army led by vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah, who had aimed to retake the city.Upon learning of the Fatimids’ approach with a 20,000-strong force, the Crusaders, numbering approximately 10,200, mobilized under Godfrey of Bouillon. They marched south from Jerusalem on August 10, carrying the relic of the True Cross to inspire their forces. Reaching the outskirts of Ascalon, they captured Egyptian spies who revealed the Fatimid camp’s unprepared state.At dawn on August 12, the Crusaders launched a surprise attack on the sleeping Fatimid camp. Al-Afdal’s forces, caught off guard with inadequate guards posted, were unable to fully mobilize. The disorganized Fatimid infantry was quickly overwhelmed, and their cavalry failed to effectively engage. Despite their numerical superiority, the Fatimid army panicked and scattered. Al-Afdal fled by ship, leaving his camp and treasures to the Crusaders. Fatimid losses were heavy, with over 10,000 reported dead, while Crusader casualties remain unknown.<img src='https://i.pinimg.com/originals/f7/5d/4e/f75d4ebbb0ebc99be07ed1ea71537eb1.jpg'>Battle of Ascalon. @ AnonymousThe victory solidified Crusader control over Jerusalem, but Godfrey's inability to secure the surrender of Ascalon itself left the city as a persistent Fatimid stronghold. Disputes among Crusader leaders over the city’s control contributed to its retention by the Fatimids. The Battle of Ascalon marked the end of the First Crusade, fulfilling its primary goal of reclaiming Jerusalem. However, most Crusaders returned to Europe soon after, leaving the newly established <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crusader-States-Outremer' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> with only a small garrison to defend against future Fatimid incursions. While a triumph, the battle foreshadowed the continued struggle for dominance in the region.

Battle of Ascalon

The majority of crusaders now considered their pilgrimage complete and returned home. Only 300 knights and 2,000 infantry remained to defend Palestine. Relations between the newly created <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crusader-States-Outremer' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Crusader states</a> of the County of Edessa and Principality of Antioch were variable. The Franks became fully engaged in Near East politics with the result that Muslims and Christians often fought each other. Antioch's territorial expansion ended in 1119 with a major defeat to the Turks at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis, the Field of Blood.

Epilogue 

Op 14 juli 1099 lanceerden de kruisvaarders hun aanval, Godfrey en zijn bondgenoten waren geplaatst in de richting van de noordelijke muur van Jeruzalem, hun prioriteit was om door het buitenste gordijn van de muren van Jeruzalem te breken. Tegen het einde van de dag drongen ze de eerste verdedigingslinie binnen. Op de krachten van de South Raymond (van Toulouse) werden door de <a href="https://history-maps.com/nl/story/Fatimid-Caliphate" target="_blank">fatimids</a> woeste weerstand onderzocht. Op 15 juli werd de aanval in het noordelijke front aanbevolen, Godfrey en zijn bondgenoten kregen succes en de kruisvaarder Ludolf van Tournai was de eerste die de muur monteerde. De Franken kregen snel de voet in de muur, en terwijl de verdediging van de stad instortte, schudden paniekgolven de fatimids.

Eindaanval op Jeruzalem