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Background: The End of the Arab Conquest

By the mid-7th century, the Arab conquests had reshaped the political and social landscape of the Near East. The Sasanian Empire, which had long controlled Iraq, fell in 651 CE after the decisive Arab victory at the Battle of Nahavand (642 CE). Iraq, then a prosperous region of agriculture and culture, transitioned from Persian rule to becoming a key part of the expanding Islamic Caliphate under the Rashidun.

Rashidun Rule (632–661 CE)

Iraq emerged as a vital center under the Rashidun Caliphs. The city of Kufa, founded in 638 CE during Caliph Umar’s reign, became a military garrison town and administrative hub. Alongside Basra, established in 636 CE, these cities allowed the Rashidun to consolidate control over Iraq and maintain order. Iraq's fertile lands became a major source of wealth, supplying the caliphate with food and revenue through land taxes.

Political tensions escalated under Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656 CE) due to discontent over governance and favoritism toward Umayyad elites. After Uthman’s assassination in 656 CE, Caliph Ali, the fourth Rashidun caliph, moved his capital to Kufa, making Iraq the political center of the caliphate. However, his reign faced significant challenges, including the First Fitna (civil war) and his defeat at the Battle of Siffin (657 CE) against Muawiya, the governor of Syria. Ali’s assassination in 661 CE marked the end of Rashidun rule and the rise of the Umayyads.

Umayyad Rule (661–750 CE)

Under the Umayyad Caliphate, headquartered in Damascus, Iraq was governed by provincial governors who often struggled to manage the region's diverse population and complex tribal dynamics. Kufa and Basra remained critical administrative and military centers but also became hotbeds of political unrest. Dissatisfaction with the Umayyads’ centralization of power in Syria and perceived neglect of Iraq fueled repeated rebellions.

Iraq’s discontent was further inflamed by sectarian divides, particularly among the Shi’a, who opposed the Sunni Umayyads and considered Ali’s descendants the rightful leaders. This led to uprisings such as the revolt of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi in Kufa (685–687 CE), which sought to avenge the death of Husayn at Karbala (680 CE) and promote the cause of Ali’s family.

Despite these challenges, Iraq remained economically significant under the Umayyads, with its agricultural wealth and location at the crossroads of trade routes. Cities like Basra flourished as key ports in the Indian Ocean trade network.

Transition to Abbasid Rule

By the mid-8th century, growing resentment against Umayyad rule reached a tipping point. Iraq became a focal point of the Abbasid Revolution (750 CE), led by a coalition of disaffected groups, including Shi’a, non-Arab Muslims (mawali), and Iraqi elites. The decisive Battle of the Zab (750 CE) ended Umayyad rule, and the Abbasid Caliphate, with its capital eventually established in Baghdad, ushered in a new era for Iraq.

This period of Rashidun and Umayyad rule laid the foundation for Iraq’s centrality in Islamic governance, culture, and scholarship, while also highlighting the region’s enduring socio-political complexities.