The Bakumatsu period or late Tokugawa <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Shogunate</a> (1853–1867) marked the tumultuous transition from <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan's</a> feudal Tokugawa shogunate to the modern Meiji government. It is at the end of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Edo period</a> and preceded the Meiji era. It began with the dramatic arrival of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> Navy fleet under Commodore Matthew Perry and his “Black Ships” in 1853, which forced Japan to open its ports after over two centuries of isolation under the sakoku policy. Perry’s demand for trade and diplomatic relations culminated in the signing of the Unequal Treaties, notably the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, which granted significant concessions to Western powers and undermined Japan’s sovereignty.These events intensified domestic tensions, exposing the shogunate’s inability to resist foreign encroachment. The treaties sparked fierce anti-Western sentiment, encapsulated by the slogan sonnō jōi (“Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians”), as well as internal divisions between pro-shogunate factions and nationalist reformers like the Ishin Shishi, who sought to restore imperial authority. The major ideological and political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialist Ishin Shishi (nationalist patriots) and the shogunate forces, including the elite shinsengumi ('newly selected corps') swordsmen. Resentment also grew among tozama daimyōs, former enemies of the Tokugawa, who exploited the instability to challenge the regime.This chaotic era culminated in the Boshin War (1868–1869), where pro-imperial forces triumphed over shogunate loyalists at the pivotal Battle of Toba-Fushimi. The Bakumatsu thus set the stage for the Meiji Restoration, a period of rapid modernization and reform aimed at restoring Japan’s sovereignty and competitiveness in a globalized world.

Prologue

During the Edo period <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan's</a> relationship and trade with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korea</a> were conducted through intermediaries with the Sō family in Tsushima, A Japanese outpost, called the waegwan, was allowed to be maintained in Tongnae near Pusan. The traders were confined to the outpost and no Japanese were allowed to travel to the Korean capital at Seoul. The bureau of foreign affairs wanted to change these arrangements to one based on modern state-to-state relations. In late 1868, a member of the Sō daimyō informed the Korean authorities that a new government had been established and an envoy would be sent from Japan.In 1869 the envoy from the Meiji government arrived in Korea carrying a letter requesting to establish a goodwill mission between the two countries; the letter contained the seal of the Meiji government rather than the seals authorized by the Korean Court for the Sō family to use. It also used the character ko (皇) rather than taikun (大君) to refer to the Japanese emperor. The Koreans only used this character to refer to the Chinese emperor and to the Koreans it implied ceremonial superiority to the Korean monarch which would make the Korean monarch a vassal or subject of the Japanese ruler. The Japanese were however just reacting to their domestic political situation where the Shōgun had been replaced by the emperor. The Koreans remained in the sinocentric world where <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> was at the centre of interstate relations and as a result refused to receive the envoy.Unable to force the Koreans into accepting a new set of diplomatic symbols and practices, the Japanese began to change them unilaterally. To an extent, this was a consequence from the abolition of the domains in August 1871, whereby it meant that was simply no longer possible for the Sō family of Tsushima to act as intermediaries with the Koreans. Another, equally important factor was the appointment of Soejima Taneomi as the new minister of foreign affairs, who had briefly studied law at Nagasaki with Guido Verbeck. Soejima was familiar with international law and pursued a strong forward policy in East Asia, where he used the new international rules in his dealings with the Chinese and the Koreans and with the Westerners. During his tenure, the Japanese slowly began to transform the traditional framework of relations managed by the Tsushima domain into the foundation for the opening of trade and the establishment of 'normal' interstate, diplomatic relations with Korea.

Japanese attempts to establish relations with Korea

Ee ja nai ka (ええじゃないか) was a complex of carnivalesque religious celebrations and communal activities, often understood as social or political protests, which occurred in many parts of Japan from June 1867 to May 1868, at the end of the Edo period and the start of the Meiji Restoration. Particularly intense during the Boshin War and Bakumatsu, the movement originated in the Kansai region, near Kyoto.

Ee ja nai ka 

On February 3, 1867, the 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei, to the Chrysanthemum Throne as the 122nd emperor. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title—Meiji, or Enlightened Rule—to mark the beginning of a new era in Japanese history.

Meiji 

On 3 September 1868, Edo was renamed Tokyo ('Eastern capital'), and the Meiji Emperor moved his capital to Tokyo, electing residence in Edo Castle, today's Imperial Palace.

Emperor moves to Tokyo 

Established as the Heigakkō in 1868 in Kyoto, the officer training school was renamed the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1874 and relocated to Ichigaya, Tokyo. After 1898, the Academy came under the supervision of the Army Education Administration. The Imperial Japanese Army Academy was the principal officer's training school for the Imperial Japanese Army. The programme consisted of a junior course for graduates of local army cadet schools and for those who had completed four years of middle school, and a senior course for officer candidates.

Imperial Japanese Army Academy established 

The Meiji Restoration was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ruling emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities and consolidated the political system under the Emperor of Japan. The goals of the restored government were expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure and spanned both the late Edo period (often called the Bakumatsu) and the beginning of the Meiji era, during which time Japan rapidly industrialized and adopted Western ideas and production methods.

Meiji Restoration

The Charter Oath of 1868 marked a pivotal moment in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japanese history</a>, setting the framework for modernization under Emperor Meiji and the transition from the Tokugawa shogunate to a centralized imperial government. Promulgated at Kyoto Imperial Palace on April 6, 1868, the Oath outlined five guiding principles for Japan’s transformation into a modern state, emphasizing open deliberation, social unity, individual freedom of vocation, the rejection of outdated customs, and the pursuit of global knowledge to strengthen imperial rule.Charter Oath consists of five clauses:<ol><li>Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established and all matters decided by open discussion.</li><li>All classes, high and low, shall be united in vigorously carrying out the administration of affairs of state.</li><li>The common people, no less than the civil and military officials, shall all be allowed to pursue their own calling so that there may be no discontent.</li><li>Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and everything based upon the just laws of Nature.</li><li>Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundation of imperial rule.</li></ol>The Oath, drafted with input from reformist leaders like Kido Takayoshi and Yuri Kimimasa, aimed to balance the aspirations for progress with the realities of maintaining stability during the Boshin War. It reassured pro-Tokugawa factions of their inclusion in the new order while laying the ideological groundwork for sweeping changes in governance, society, and industry. Though promises such as establishing a parliamentary system were not realized until 1890, the Oath symbolized a commitment to reform and inspired the subsequent modernization of Japan. Its spirit influenced the Meiji Constitution and Japan’s rapid industrial and military advancements. In later years, the Oath was reaffirmed by Emperor Shōwa after <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/World-War-II' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>World War II</a>, highlighting its enduring legacy as a cornerstone of Japan’s modern political identity.

Oath in Five Articles

The Boshin War, sometimes known as the Japanese Revolution or Japanese Civil War, was a civil war in Japan fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces of the ruling Tokugawa <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>shogunate</a> and a clique seeking to seize political power in the name of the Imperial Court.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Boshin_war.svg/1214px-Boshin_war.svg.png'>Boshin War. © HoodinskiThe war stemmed from dissatisfaction among many nobles and young samurai with the shogunate's handling of foreigners following the opening of Japan during the prior decade. Increasing Western influence in the economy led to a decline similar to that of other Asian countries at the time. An alliance of western samurai, particularly the domains of Chōshū, Satsuma, and Tosa, and court officials secured control of the Imperial Court and influenced the young Emperor Meiji. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the sitting shōgun, realizing the futility of his situation, abdicated and handed over political power to the emperor. Yoshinobu had hoped that by doing this the House of Tokugawa could be preserved and participate in the future government.However, military movements by imperial forces, partisan violence in Edo, and an imperial decree promoted by Satsuma and Chōshū abolishing the House of Tokugawa led Yoshinobu to launch a military campaign to seize the emperor's court in Kyoto. The military tide rapidly turned in favour of the smaller but relatively modernized Imperial faction, and, after a series of battles culminating in the surrender of Edo, Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Those loyal to the Tokugawa shōgun retreated to northern Honshū and later to Hokkaidō, where they founded the Republic of Ezo. Defeat at the Battle of Hakodate broke this last holdout and left the Emperor as defacto supreme ruler throughout the whole of Japan, completing the military phase of the Meiji Restoration.Around 69,000 men were mobilized during the conflict, and of these about 8,200 were killed. In the end, the victorious Imperial faction abandoned its objective of expelling foreigners from Japan and instead adopted a policy of continued modernization with an eye to eventual renegotiation of the unequal treaties with the Western powers. Due to the persistence of Saigō Takamori, a prominent leader of the Imperial faction, the Tokugawa loyalists were shown clemency, and many former shogunate leaders and samurai were later given positions of responsibility under the new government.When the Boshin War began, Japan was already modernizing, following the same course of advancement as that of the industrialized Western nations. Since Western nations, especially the United Kingdom and France, were deeply involved in the country's politics, the installation of Imperial power added more turbulence to the conflict. Over time, the war was romanticized as a 'bloodless revolution', as the number of casualties was small relative to the size of Japan's population. However, conflicts soon emerged between the western samurai and the modernists in the Imperial faction, which led to the bloodier Satsuma Rebellion.

Boshin War

After the defeat of forces loyal to the Tokugawa shogunate during the Boshin War in 1868, the new Meiji government confiscated all lands formerly under direct control of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Shogunate</a> (tenryō) and lands controlled by daimyos who remained loyal to the Tokugawa cause. These lands accounted for approximately a quarter of the land area of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> and were reorganized into prefectures with governors appointed directly by the central government.The second phase in the abolition of the han came in 1869. The movement was spearheaded by Kido Takayoshi of the Chōshū Domain, with the backing of court nobles Iwakura Tomomi and Sanjō Sanetomi. Kido persuaded the lords of Chōshū and of Satsuma, the two leading domains in the overthrow of the Tokugawa, to voluntarily surrender their domains to the Emperor. Between July 25, 1869, and August 2, 1869, fearing that their loyalty would be questioned, the daimyos of 260 other domains followed suit. Only 14 domains failed to initially comply voluntarily with the return of the domains, and were then ordered to do so by the Court, under the threat of military action.In return for surrendering their hereditary authority to the central government, the daimyos were re-appointed as non-hereditary governors of their former domains (which were renamed as prefectures), and were allowed to keep ten percent of the tax revenues, based on actual rice production (which was greater than the nominal rice production upon which their feudal obligations under the Shogunate were formerly based).The term daimyō was abolished in July 1869 as well, with the formation of the kazoku peerage system. In August 1871, Okubo, assisted by Saigō Takamori, Kido Takayoshi, Iwakura Tomomi and Yamagata Aritomo forced through an Imperial Edict which reorganized the 261 surviving ex-feudal domains into three urban prefectures (fu) and 302 prefectures (ken). The number was then reduced through consolidation the following year to three urban prefectures and 72 prefectures, and later to the present three urban prefectures and 44 prefectures by 1888.

Abolition of the han system in Japan

The foreign employees in Meiji Japan, known in Japanese as O-yatoi Gaikokujin, were hired by the Japanese government and municipalities for their specialized knowledge and skill to assist in the modernization of the Meiji period. The term came from Yatoi (a person hired temporarily, a day laborer), was politely applied for hired foreigner as O-yatoi gaikokujin.The total number is over 2,000, probably reaches 3,000 (with thousands more in the private sector). Until 1899, more than 800 hired foreign experts continued to be employed by the government, and many others were employed privately. Their occupation varied, ranging from high salaried government advisors, college professors and instructor, to ordinary salaried technicians.Along the process of the opening of the country, the Tokugawa <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Shogunate</a> government first hired, German diplomat Philipp Franz von Siebold as diplomatic advisor, Dutch naval engineer Hendrik Hardes for Nagasaki Arsenal and Willem Johan Cornelis, Ridder Huijssen van Kattendijke for Nagasaki Naval Training Center, French naval engineer François Léonce Verny for Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, and British civil engineer Richard Henry Brunton. Most of the O-yatoi was appointed through government approval with two or three years contract, and took their responsibility properly in Japan, except some cases.As the Public Works hired almost 40% of the total number of the O-yatois, the main goal in hiring the O-yatois was to obtain transfers of technology and advice on systems and cultural ways. Therefore, young Japanese officers gradually took over the post of the O-yatoi after they completed training and education at the Imperial College, Tokyo, the Imperial College of Engineering or studying abroad.The O-yatois were highly paid; in 1874, they numbered 520 men, at which time their salaries came to ¥2.272 million, or 33.7 percent of the national annual budget. The salary system was equivalent to the British India, for instance, the chief engineer of the British India's Public Works was paid 2,500 Rs/month which was almost same as 1,000 Yen, salary of Thomas William Kinder, superintendent of the Osaka Mint in 1870.Despite the value they provided in the modernization of Japan, the Japanese government did not consider it prudent for them to settle in Japan permanently. After the contract terminated, most of them returned to their country except some, like Josiah Conder and William Kinninmond Burton.The system was officially terminated in 1899 when extraterritoriality came to an end in Japan. Nevertheless, similar employment of foreigners persists in Japan, particularly within the national education system and professional sports.

Foreign Advisors in Meiji Japan

When <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> emerged from the self-imposed, pre-Meiji era sakoku in 1867, Western countries already had very dominant and internationally significant companies. Japanese companies realized that in order to remain sovereign, they needed to develop the same methodology and mindset of North American and European companies, and the zaibatsu emerged.The zaibatsu were at the heart of economic and industrial activity within the Empire of Japan since Japanese industrialization accelerated during the Meiji era. They held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies which only increased following the Japanese victory over <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russia</a> in the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1904–1905 and Japan's victories over <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a> during <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/World-War-I' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>World War I</a>.The 'big four' zaibatsu, Sumitomo, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Yasuda were the most significant zaibatsu groups. Two of them, Sumitomo and Mitsui, had roots in the Edo period while Mitsubishi and Yasuda traced their origins to the Meiji Restoration.

Formation of the Zaibatsu in Japan

There were at least two reasons for the speed of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan's</a> modernization: the employment of more than 3,000 foreign experts (called o-yatoi gaikokujin or 'hired foreigners') in a variety of specialist fields such as teaching English, science, engineering, the army and navy, among others; and the dispatch of many Japanese students overseas to Europe and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>America</a>, based on the fifth and last article of the Charter Oath of 1868: 'Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundations of Imperial rule.' This process of modernization was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, enhancing the power of the great zaibatsu firms such as Mitsui and Mitsubishi.Hand in hand, the zaibatsu and government guided the nation, borrowing technology from the West. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia's market for manufactured goods, beginning with textiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic, importing raw materials and exporting finished products—a reflection of Japan's relative poverty in raw materials.Japan emerged from the Keiō–Meiji transition in 1868 as the first Asian industrialized nation. Domestic commercial activities and limited foreign trade had met the demands for material culture until the Keiō era, but the modernized Meiji era had radically different requirements. From the onset, the Meiji rulers embraced the concept of a market economy and adopted British and North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. The private sector—in a nation with an abundance of aggressive entrepreneurs—welcomed such change.

Modernization during Meiji Japan

To promote industrialization, the government decided that, while it should help private business to allocate resources and to plan, the private sector was best equipped to stimulate economic growth. The greatest role of government was to help provide the economic conditions in which business could flourish. In short, government was to be the guide, and business the producer. In the early Meiji period, the government built factories and shipyards that were sold to entrepreneurs at a fraction of their value. Many of these businesses grew rapidly into the larger conglomerates. Government emerged as chief promoter of private enterprise, enacting a series of pro-business policies.

Government-Business Partnership 

The old Tokugawa class system of samurai, farmer, artisan, and merchant was abolished by 1871, and, even though old prejudices and status consciousness continued, all were theoretically equal before the law. Actually helping to perpetuate social distinctions, the government named new social divisions: the former daimyō became peerage nobility, the samurai became gentry, and all others became commoners. Daimyō and samurai pensions were paid off in lump sums, and the samurai later lost their exclusive claim to military positions. Former samurai found new pursuits as bureaucrats, teachers, army officers, police officials, journalists, scholars, colonists in the northern parts of Japan, bankers, and businessmen. These occupations helped stem some of the discontent this large group felt; some profited immensely, but many were not successful and provided significant opposition in the ensuing years.

Abolition of class system 

The Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty was the first treaty between Japan and Qing China. It was signed on 13 September 1871 in Tientsin by Date Munenari and Plenipotentiary Li Hongzhang.The treaty guaranteed the judiciary rights of Consuls, and fixed trade tariffs between the two countries.The treaty was ratified in the spring of 1873 and was applied until the First Sino-Japanese War, which led to a renegotiation with the Treaty of Shimonoseki.

Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty 

During the Meiji period, mine development was promoted under the policy of the Fengoku Robe , and coal mining, Ashio Copper Mine, and Kamaishi Mine with iron ore in Hokkaido and northern Kyushu were developed. The production of high-value gold and silver, even in small quantities, was at the top of the world. An important mine was the Ashio Copper Mine which existed since at least the 1600s. It was owned by the Tokugawa <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>shogunate</a>. At that time it produced about 1,500 tons annually. The mine was closed in 1800. In 1871 it became privately owned and reopened when Japan industrialized following the Meiji Restoration. By 1885 it produced 4,090 tons of copper (39% of Japan's copper production).

Mines Nationalized and Privatized in Meiji Japan

By the late 1860s, the Meiji leaders had established a system that declared equality in education for all in the process of modernizing the country. After 1868 new leadership set Japan on a rapid course of modernization. The Meiji leaders established a public education system to modernize the country. Missions like the Iwakura mission were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local school boards, and teacher autonomy. Such ideas and ambitious initial plans, however, proved very difficult to carry out. After some trial and error, a new national education system emerged. As an indication of its success, elementary school enrollments climbed from about 30% percent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900, despite strong public protest, especially against school fees.In 1871, the Ministry of Education was established. Elementary school was made compulsory from 1872, and was intended to create loyal subjects of the Emperor. Middle Schools were preparatory schools for students destined to enter one of the Imperial Universities, and the Imperial Universities were intended to create westernized leaders who would be able to direct the modernization of Japan. In December, 1885, the cabinet system of government was established, and Mori Arinori became the first Minister of Education of Japan. Mori, together with Inoue Kowashi created the foundation of the Empire of Japan's educational system by issuing a series of orders from 1886. These laws established an elementary school system, middle school system, normal school system and an imperial university system. With the aid of foreign advisors, such as American educators David Murray and Marion McCarrell Scott, normal schools for teacher education were also created in each prefecture. Other advisors, such as George Adams Leland, were recruited to create specific types of curriculum. With the increasing industrialization of Japan, demand increased for higher education and vocational training. Inoue Kowashi, who followed Mori as Minister of Education established a state vocational school system, and also promoted women's education through a separate girls' school system.Compulsory education was extended to six years in 1907. According to the new laws, textbooks could only be issued upon the approval of the Ministry of Education. The curriculum was centered on moral education (mostly aimed at instilling patriotism), <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Mathematics' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>mathematics</a>, design, reading and writing, composition, Japanese calligraphy, Japanese history, geography, science, drawing, singing, and physical education. All children of the same age learned each subject from the same series of textbook.

Education Policy in the Meiji Era 

On June 27, 1871, the Meiji government officially adopted the 'yen' as <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan's</a> modern unit of currency under the New Currency Act of 1871. While initially defined at par with the Spanish and Mexican dollars then circulating in the 19th century at 0.78 troy ounce (24.26 g) of fine silver, the yen was also defined as 1.5 grams of fine gold, considering recommendations to put the currency on the bimetallic standard. The Act also stipulated the adoption of the decimal accounting system of yen, sen, and rin, with the coins being round and manufactured using Western machinery acquired from Hong Kong. The new currency was gradually introduced beginning from July of that year.The yen replaced the complex monetary system of the Edo period in the form of Tokugawa coinage as well as the various hansatsu paper currencies issued by Japan's feudal fiefs in an array of incompatible denominations. The former han (fiefs) became prefectures and their mints private chartered banks, which initially retained the right to print money. To bring an end to this situation, the Bank of Japan was founded in 1882 and given a monopoly on controlling the money supply.

Birth of the Japanese Yen

The Iwakura Mission or Iwakura Embassy was a Japanese diplomatic voyage to the United States and Europe conducted between 1871 and 1873 by leading statesmen and scholars of the Meiji period. It was not the only such mission, but it is the most well-known and possibly most significant in terms of its impact on the modernization of Japan after a long period of isolation from the West. The mission was first proposed by the influential Dutch missionary and engineer Guido Verbeck, based to some degree on the model of the Grand Embassy of Peter I.The aim of the mission was threefold; to gain recognition for the newly reinstated imperial dynasty under the Emperor Meiji; to begin preliminary renegotiation of the unequal treaties with the dominant world powers; and to make a comprehensive study of modern industrial, political, military and educational systems and structures in the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> and Europe.The mission was named after and headed by Iwakura Tomomi in the role of extraordinary and plenipotentiary ambassador, assisted by four vice-ambassadors, three of whom (Ōkubo Toshimichi, Kido Takayoshi, and Itō Hirobumi) were also ministers in the Japanese government. The historian Kume Kunitake as private secretary to Iwakura Tomomi, was the official diarist of the journey. The log of the expedition provided a detailed account of Japanese observations on the United States and rapidly industrializing Western Europe.Also included in the mission were a number of administrators and scholars, totaling 48 people. In addition to the mission staff, about 53 students and attendants also joined the outward voyage from Yokohama. Several of the students were left behind to complete their education in the foreign countries, including five young women who stayed in the United States to study, including the then 6-year old Tsuda Umeko, who after returning to Japan, founded the Joshi Eigaku Juku (present day Tsuda University) in 1900, Nagai Shigeko, later Baroness Uryū Shigeko, as well as Yamakawa Sutematsu, later Princess Ōyama Sutematsu.Of the initial goals of the mission the aim of revision of the unequal treaties was not achieved, prolonging the mission by almost four months, but also impressing the importance of the second goal on its members. The attempts to negotiate new treaties under better conditions with the foreign governments led to criticism of the mission that members were attempting to go beyond the mandate set by the Japanese government. Members of the mission were nonetheless favorably impressed by industrial modernization seen in America and Europe and the experience of the tour provided them a strong impetus to lead similar modernization initiatives on their return.

Iwakura Mission 

The task of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>French</a> military mission was to help reorganize the Imperial Japanese Army, and establish the first draft law, enacted in January 1873. The law established military service for all males, for a duration of three years, with an additional four years in the reserve.The French mission was essentially active at the Ueno Military School for non-commissioned officers. Between 1872 and 1880, various schools and military establishments were set up under the direction of the mission, including:<ul><li>Establishment of the Toyama Gakko, the first school to train and educate officers and noncommissioned officers.</li><li>A shooting school, using French rifles.</li><li>An arsenal for gun and munition manufacture, equipped with French machinery, which employed 2500 workers.</li><li>Artillery batteries in the suburbs of Tokyo.</li><li>A gunpowder factory.</li><li>A Military Academy for Army officers in Ichigaya, inaugurated in 1875, on the ground of today's Ministry of Defense.</li></ul>Between 1874 and the end of their term, the mission was in charge of building <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan's</a> coastal defenses. The mission occurred at the time of a tense internal situation in Japan, with the revolt of Saigō Takamori in the Satsuma rebellion, and contributed significantly to the modernization of Imperial forces before the conflict.

French military mission to Meiji Japan

The Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity was made between representatives of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Empire of Japan</a> and the Korean <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Joseon-Dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Kingdom of Joseon</a> in 1876. Negotiations were concluded on February 26, 1876.In Korea, Heungseon Daewongun, who instituted a policy of increased isolationism against the European powers, was forced into retirement by his son King Gojong and Gojong's wife, Empress Myeongseong. <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> had already made several unsuccessful attempts to begin commerce with the Joseon dynasty during the Daewongun's era. However, after he was removed from power, many new officials who supported the idea of opening commerce with foreigners took power. While there was political instability, Japan used gunboat diplomacy to open and exert influence on Korea before a European power could. In 1875, their plan was put into action: the Un'yō, a small Japanese warship, was dispatched to present a show of force and survey coastal waters without Korean permission.

Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity 

In 1872, the Meiji government introduced Japan’s first modern education system through the Education System Order (Gakusei), marking a critical step in the country’s modernization. This reform established a nationwide framework for universal education, dividing the country into eight university districts, each further subdivided into 32 middle school districts and 210 primary school districts. This structure aimed to make education accessible to all citizens, reflecting the government’s commitment to societal transformation.The curriculum prioritized practical knowledge and skills essential for modernization, moving away from traditional Confucian teachings. Subjects like reading, writing, arithmetic, and moral education were emphasized to produce informed and capable citizens. Despite early challenges, including community resistance and a lack of qualified teachers, the reforms laid the groundwork for significant educational advances. By 1900, over 90% of school-age children were enrolled in elementary schools, showcasing the success of these early initiatives.Education for women also became a focus during this period, influenced by Nakamura Masanao’s essay “Creating Good Mothers.” Nakamura’s ideal of “Good Wife, Wise Mother” (ryōsai kenbo) highlighted women’s roles as moral and religious pillars in the home and educators of the next generation. This philosophy tied women’s education to national strength, promoting their roles in supporting husbands and raising capable children. Following the Gakusei law, women could hold official teaching positions, particularly in schools for girls (jogakkō), opening new opportunities while reinforcing traditional gender roles.The 1872 Gakusei established a transformative framework for Japan’s education system, significantly contributing to the nation’s modernization and industrialization efforts during the Meiji era.

Gakusei: Foundation of Modern Japanese Education

All castles, along with the feudal domains themselves, were turned over to the Meiji government in the 1871 abolition of the han system. During the Meiji Restoration, these castles were viewed as symbols of the previous ruling elite, and nearly 2,000 castles were dismantled or destroyed. Others were simply abandoned and eventually fell into disrepair.

Destruction of Japanese Castles during the Meiji Period

On September 12, 1872, the first railway, between Shimbashi (later Shiodome) and Yokohama (present Sakuragichō) opened. (The date is in Tenpō calendar, October 14 in present Gregorian calendar). A one-way trip took 53 minutes in comparison to 40 minutes for a modern electric train. Service started with nine round trips daily.British engineer Edmund Morel (1841-1871) supervised construction of the first railway on Honshu during the last year of his life, American engineer Joseph U. Crowford (1842-1942) supervised construction of a coal mine railway on Hokkaidō in 1880, and German engineer Herrmann Rumschottel (1844-1918) supervised railway construction on Kyushu beginning in 1887. All three trained Japanese engineers to undertake railway projects.

Opening Japan’s First Railway

In 1873, the Seikanron debate emerged as a pivotal moment in Meiji <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan’s</a> foreign policy. Advocated by influential figures like Saigō Takamori and Itagaki Taisuke, the proposal called for a military expedition to <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korea</a>, citing the peninsula’s refusal to recognize Emperor Meiji’s legitimacy as a pretext for action. Saigō argued that such a campaign would assert Japan’s strength and provide employment for displaced samurai.The proposal faced opposition from leaders like Iwakura Tomomi and Ōkubo Toshimichi, who believed that domestic reforms and modernization efforts should take precedence over costly military ventures. The Iwakura Mission’s return from its study of Western nations strengthened the argument against invasion, emphasizing the importance of focusing on industrialization and diplomacy.Ultimately, the Seikanron was rejected, leading to significant political fallout. Saigō’s disillusionment with the government fueled his later role in the Satsuma Rebellion, while Itagaki shifted his focus to championing political reform. The debate underscored the tension between modernization and traditionalist ambitions in early Meiji Japan.

Seikanron: Korea Invasion Debate

The Japanese Land Tax Reform of 1873 was a transformative step in the modernization of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> during the Meiji era. It established private land ownership for the first time, replacing the archaic system where all land was formally owned by the emperor and managed by feudal lords. This reform introduced a uniform tax system based on the monetary value of land, collected in cash rather than crops, and marked a decisive shift away from the feudal economic structure.By stabilizing government revenue, the reform provided a consistent financial base for the Meiji state, crucial for funding industrialization and modernization efforts. It also allowed land to function as a financial asset, enabling transactions, investments, and loans, which were essential for the development of a capitalist economy. The newfound ability of landowners to participate in political processes further reshaped Japan's social and political landscape, laying the groundwork for broader reforms, including the establishment of representative government.Although the reform caused resentment among farmers, leading to revolts, it marked a significant departure from feudal practices and underscored Japan's transition to a modern, market-driven economy. The system of land bonds and registries it introduced became the foundation of modern property ownership in Japan, ensuring the reform's lasting legacy in shaping the country's economic and political evolution.

Land Tax Reform in Meiji Japan

<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> was dedicated to creating a unified, modern nation by the late nineteenth–century. Among their goals were to instill respect for the emperor, the requiring of universal education throughout the Japanese nation, and lastly the privilege and importance of military service. The Conscription Law established on January 10, 1873. This law required every able-bodied male Japanese citizen, regardless of class, to serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary.The samurai were generally resentful of the new, western-style military and at first, refused to stand in formation with the peasant class. Some of the samurai, more disgruntled than the others, formed pockets of resistance to circumvent the mandatory military service. Many committed self-mutilation or openly rebelled (Satsuma Rebellion). They expressed their displeasure, because rejecting Western culture 'became a way of demonstrating one's commitment' to the ways of the earlier Tokugawa era.

Conscription Law in Meiji Japan

The Japanese punitive expedition to <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Taiwan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Taiwan</a> in 1874 was a punitive expedition launched by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japanese</a> in retaliation for the murder of 54 Ryukyuan sailors by Paiwan aborigines near the southwestern tip of Taiwan in December 1871. The success of the expedition, which marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy, revealed the fragility of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Qing-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Qing dynasty's</a> hold on Taiwan and encouraged further Japanese adventurism. Diplomatically, Japan's embroilment with Qing <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> in 1874 was eventually resolved by a <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British</a> arbitration under which Qing China agreed to compensate Japan for property damage. Some ambiguous wording in the agreed terms were later argued by Japan to be confirmation of Chinese renunciation of suzerainty over the Ryukyu Islands, paving the way for de facto Japanese incorporation of the Ryukyu in 1879.

Japanese invasion of Taiwan

Following the 1868 Meiji Restoration, many members of the former samurai class were disgruntled with the direction the nation had taken. The abolition of their former privileged social status under the feudal order had also eliminated their income, and the establishment of universal military conscription had eliminated much of their reason for existence. The very rapid modernization (Westernization) of the country was resulting in massive changes to Japanese culture, language, dress and society, and appeared to many samurai to be a betrayal of the jōi (“Expel the Barbarian”) portion of the Sonnō jōi justification used to overthrow the former Tokugawa <a href='https://history-maps.com/article/Shogunate-System-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>shogunate</a>.Hizen Province, with a large samurai population, was a center of unrest against the new government. Older samurai formed political groups rejecting both overseas expansionism and westernization, and calling for a return to the old feudal order. Younger samurai organized the group Seikantō political party, advocating militarism and the invasion of Korea.Etō Shinpei, former Justice Minister and Councilor in the early Meiji government resigned his posts in 1873 to protest the government's refusal to launch a military expedition against Korea. Etō decided to take action on the 16th of February 1874, by raiding a bank and occupying government offices within the grounds of the old Saga castle. Etō had expected that similarly disaffected samurai in Satsuma and Tosa would stage insurrections when they received word of his actions, but he had miscalculated badly, and both domains remained calm. Government troops marched into Saga the following day. After losing a battle on the border of Saga and Fukuoka on February 22, Eto decided that further resistance would only result in needless deaths, and disbanded his army.

Saga Rebellion 

The Akizuki rebellion was an uprising against the Meiji government of Japan that occurred in Akizuki from 27 October 1876 to 24 November 1876. Former samurai of the Akizuki Domain, opposed to the Westernization of Japan and loss of their class privileges after the Meiji Restoration, launched an uprising inspired by the failed Shinpūren rebellion three days earlier. The Akizuki rebels attacked local police before being suppressed by the Imperial Japanese Army, and the leaders of the rebellion committed suicide or were executed. The Akizuki rebellion was one of a number of 'shizoku uprisings' which took place in Kyūshū and western Honshu during the early Meiji period.

Akizuki rebellion 

The Satsuma Rebellion was a revolt of disaffected samurai against the new imperial government, nine years into the Meiji Era. Its name comes from the Satsuma Domain, which had been influential in the Restoration and became home to unemployed samurai after military reforms rendered their status obsolete. The rebellion lasted from January 29, 1877, until September of that year, when it was decisively crushed, and its leader, Saigō Takamori, was shot and mortally wounded. Saigō's rebellion was the last and most serious of a series of armed uprisings against the new government of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Empire of Japan</a>, the predecessor state to modern Japan. The rebellion was very expensive for the government, which forced it to make numerous monetary reforms including leaving the gold standard. The conflict effectively ended the samurai class and ushered in modern warfare fought by conscript soldiers instead of military nobles.

Satsuma Rebellion 

Ryūkyū Disposition or Annexation of Okinawa, was the political process during the early years of the Meiji period that saw the incorporation of the former Ryukyu Kingdom into the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Empire of Japan</a> as Okinawa Prefecture (i.e., one of Japan's 'home' prefectures) and its decoupling from the Chinese tributary system. These processes began with the creation of Ryukyu Domain in 1872 and culminated in the kingdom's annexation and final dissolution in 1879; immediate diplomatic fallout and consequent negotiations with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Qing-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Qing China</a>, brokered by Ulysses S. Grant, effectively came to an end late the following year. The term is also sometimes used more narrowly in relation to the events and changes of 1879 alone. The Ryūkyū Disposition has been 'alternatively characterized as aggression, annexation, national unification, or internal reform'.

Ryūkyū Disposition 

The Freedom and People's Rights Movement, Liberty and Civil Right Movement, Free Civil Right Movement (Jiyū Minken Undō) was a Japanese political and social movement for democracy in the 1880s. It pursued the formation of an elected legislature, revision of the Unequal Treaties with the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> and European countries, the institution of civil rights, and the reduction of centralized taxation.The Movement prompted the Meiji government to establish a constitution in 1889 and a diet in 1890; on the other hand, it failed to loosen the control of the central government and its demand for true democracy remained unfulfilled, with ultimate power continuing to reside in the Meiji (Chōshū–Satsuma) oligarchy because, among other limitations, under the Meiji Constitution, the first election law enfranchised only men who paid a substantial amount in property taxes, as a result of the Land Tax Reform in 1873.

Freedom and People's Rights Movement

Like most modern Japanese institutions, the Bank of Japan was founded after the Meiji Restoration. Prior to the Restoration, Japan's feudal fiefs all issued their own money, hansatsu, in an array of incompatible denominations, but the New Currency Act of Meiji 4 (1871) did away with these and established the yen as the new decimal currency, which had parity with the Mexican silver dollar. The former han (fiefs) became prefectures and their mints became private chartered banks which, however, initially retained the right to print money. For a time both the central government and these so-called 'national' banks issued money. A period of unanticipated consequences was ended when the Bank of Japan was founded in Meiji 15 (10 October 1882), under the Bank of Japan Act 1882 (27 June 1882), after a Belgian model. That period ended when central bank—the Bank of Japan—was founded in 1882, after the Belgian model. It has since been partly privately owned. The national Bank was given a monopoly on controlling the money supply in 1884, and by 1904 the previously issued notes were all retired. The Bank started out on the silver standard, but adopted the gold standard in 1897.In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the US to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories.

Bank of Japan founded 

The Chichibu incident was a large-scale peasant revolt in November 1884 in Chichibu, Saitama, a short distance from Japan's capital. It lasted about two weeks. It was one of many similar uprisings in Japan around that time, occurring in reaction to the dramatic changes to society which came about in the wake of the 1868 Meiji Restoration. What set Chichibu apart was the scope of the uprising, and the severity of the government's response. The Meiji government based its industrialization program on tax revenues from private land ownership, and the Land Tax Reform of 1873 increased the process of landlordism, with many farmers having their land confiscated due to inability to pay the new taxes.The rising discontent of the farmers led to a number of peasant revolts in various impoverished rural areas around the country. The year 1884 saw roughly sixty riots; the total debt of the time of Japan's farmers is estimated to two hundred million yen, which corresponds to roughly two trillion yen in 1985 currency.A number of these uprisings were organized and led through the 'Freedom and People's Rights Movement', a catch-all term for a number of disconnected meeting groups and societies throughout the country, consisting of citizens who sought more representation in government and basic rights. The national constitutions and other writings on freedom in the west were largely unknown among the Japanese masses at this time, but there were those in the movement who had studied the west and were able to conceive of democratic political ideology. Some societies within the movement wrote their own draft constitutions, and many saw their work as a form of yonaoshi ('straightening the world'). Songs and rumors among the rebels often indicated their belief that the Liberal Party would alleviate their problems.

Chichibu incident 

In 1885, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japanese</a> government persuaded the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>French</a> Génie Maritime to send Bertin as a special foreign advisor to the Imperial Japanese Navy for a period of four years from 1886 to 1890. Bertin was tasked with training Japanese engineers and naval architects, designing and constructing modern warships, and naval facilities. For Bertin, then aged 45, it was an extraordinary opportunity to design an entire navy. For the French government, it represented a major coup in their fight against <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Great Britain</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a> for influence over the newly-industrializing Empire of Japan.While in Japan, Bertin designed and constructed seven major warships and 22 torpedo boats, which formed the nucleus of the budding Imperial Japanese Navy. These included the three Matsushima-class protected cruisers, which featured a single but immensely powerful 12.6-inch (320 mm) Canet main gun, which formed the core of the Japanese fleet during the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895.

Birth of the Modern Japanese Navy

In 1885, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> introduced the cabinet system of government, marking a significant step in its modernization and the centralization of political power. This reform abolished the traditional daijōkan (Imperial council) structure and replaced it with a Western-style cabinet system, aligning with the Meiji government’s goal of creating a modern state.Itō Hirobumi, a key architect of Japan’s constitutional and administrative reforms, was appointed as the first Prime Minister. The cabinet system concentrated executive authority in the hands of ministers who were responsible to the Emperor rather than the legislative body, reflecting the Meiji Constitution’s emphasis on imperial sovereignty.The establishment of the cabinet system streamlined decision-making processes, strengthened the central government, and prepared Japan for further institutional reforms. It was a foundational step toward the 1889 promulgation of the Meiji Constitution, solidifying Japan’s emergence as a modern constitutional monarchy.

Birth of the Cabinet System in Meiji Japan

The Constitution of the Empire of Japan was the constitution of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Empire of Japan</a> which was proclaimed on February 11, 1889, and remained in force between November 29, 1890 and May 2, 1947. Enacted after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, it provided for a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy, based jointly on the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>German</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British</a> models. In theory, the Emperor of Japan was the supreme leader, and the Cabinet, whose Prime Minister would be elected by a Privy Council, were his followers; in practice, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government. Under the Meiji Constitution, the Prime Minister and his Cabinet were not necessarily chosen from the elected members of parliament.During the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>American Occupation</a> of Japan the Meiji Constitution was replaced with the 'Postwar Constitution' on November 3, 1946; the latter document has been in force since May 3, 1947. In order to maintain legal continuity, the Postwar Constitution was enacted as an amendment to the Meiji Constitution.

Meiji Constitution

The industrial revolution first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas. By the 1890s, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japanese</a> textiles dominated the home markets and competed successfully with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British</a> products in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>India</a>, as well. Japanese shippers were competing with European traders to carry these goods across Asia and even to Europe. As in the West, the textile mills employed mainly women, half of them under age twenty. They were sent there by their fathers, and they turned over their wages to their fathers. Japan largely skipped water power and moved straight to steam powered mills, which were more productive, and which created a demand for coal.

Japanese Textile Industry

The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> primarily over influence in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korea</a>. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the port of Weihaiwei, the Qing government sued for peace in February 1895. The war demonstrated the failure of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Qing-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Qing dynasty's</a> attempts to modernize its military and fend off threats to its sovereignty, especially when compared with Japan's successful Meiji Restoration. For the first time, regional dominance in East Asia shifted from China to Japan; the prestige of the Qing dynasty, along with the classical tradition in China, suffered a major blow. The humiliating loss of Korea as a tributary state sparked an unprecedented public outcry. Within China, the defeat was a catalyst for a series of political upheavals led by Sun Yat-sen and Kang Youwei, culminating in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution.

First Sino-Japanese War 

The island of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Taiwan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Taiwan</a>, together with the Penghu Islands, became a dependency of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> in 1895, when the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Qing-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Qing dynasty</a> ceded Fujian-Taiwan Province in the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War. The short-lived Republic of Formosa resistance movement was suppressed by Japanese troops and quickly defeated in the Capitulation of Tainan, ending organized resistance to Japanese occupation and inaugurating five decades of Japanese rule over Taiwan. Its administrative capital was in Taihoku (Taipei) led by the Governor-General of Taiwan.Taiwan was Japan's first colony and can be viewed as the first step in implementing their 'Southern Expansion Doctrine' of the late 19th century. Japanese intentions were to turn Taiwan into a showpiece 'model colony' with much effort made to improve the island's economy, public works, industry, cultural Japanization, and to support the necessities of Japanese military aggression in the Asia-Pacific.

Taiwan under Japanese rule

The Tripartite Intervention or Triple Intervention was a diplomatic intervention by <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russia</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a>, and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> on 23 April 1895 over the harsh terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki imposed by <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> on the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Qing-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Qing dynasty</a> of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> that ended the First Sino-Japanese War. The goal was to stop Japanese expansion in China. The Japanese reaction against the Triple Intervention was one of the causes of the subsequent <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a>.

Triple Intervention

The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Christianity' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Christian</a> uprising in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Qing-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Qing</a> dynasty, by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (Yìhéquán). The rebels were known as the 'Boxers' in English because many of its members had practiced Chinese martial arts, which at the time were referred to as 'Chinese boxing'.After the Sino-Japanese War of 1895, villagers in North China feared the expansion of foreign spheres of influence and resented the extension of privileges to Christian missionaries, who used them to shield their followers. In 1898 Northern China experienced several natural disasters, including the Yellow River flooding and droughts, which Boxers blamed on foreign and Christian influence. Beginning in 1899, Boxers spread violence across Shandong and the North China Plain, destroying foreign property such as railroads and attacking or murdering Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians.Diplomats, missionaries, soldiers and some Chinese Christians took refuge in the diplomatic Legation Quarter. An Eight Nation Alliance of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>American</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austro</a>-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Hungary' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Hungarian</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>French</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>German</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Italy' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Italian</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japanese</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian</a> troops moved into China to lift the siege and on June 17 stormed the Dagu Fort, at Tianjin.The Eight-Nation Alliance, after initially being turned back by the Imperial Chinese military and Boxer militia, brought 20,000 armed troops to China. They defeated the Imperial Army in Tianjin and arrived in Beijing on August 14, relieving the fifty-five day siege of the Legations.

Boxer Rebellion

In 1900, the Meiji government enacted the Public Order and Police Law, a measure designed to restrict political activism and curb the growing influence of labor movements in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a>. This law prohibited the formation of labor unions, strikes, and public demonstrations deemed disruptive to public order, reflecting the government’s concerns over social unrest during Japan’s rapid industrialization.The law aimed to maintain stability by granting police broad authority to suppress political activities, particularly those associated with socialism, anarchism, or other radical ideologies. It also regulated public gatherings, requiring prior approval from authorities and imposing severe penalties for non-compliance.While the law succeeded in limiting labor and political unrest, it also stifled civil liberties, drawing criticism from advocates of democratic reforms. Its passage underscored the tensions between Japan’s industrial and social modernization efforts and the government’s authoritarian control during the Meiji era.

Public Order and Police Law

The first Anglo-Japanese Alliance was an alliance between <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Britain</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a>, signed in January 1902. The alliance was signed in London at Lansdowne House on 30 January 1902 by Lord Lansdowne, British Foreign Secretary, and Hayashi Tadasu, Japanese diplomat. A diplomatic milestone that saw an end to Britain's 'Splendid isolation' (a policy of avoiding permanent alliances), the Anglo-Japanese alliance was renewed and expanded in scope twice, in 1905 and 1911, playing a major role in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/World-War-I' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>World War I</a> before the alliance's demise in 1921 and termination in 1923.The main threat for both sides was from <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Russia-Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russia</a>. <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> was concerned about war with Britain and, in cooperation with Britain, abandoned its ally, Russia, to avoid the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1904. However, Britain siding with Japan angered the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> and some British dominions, whose opinion of the Empire of Japan worsened and gradually became hostile.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance 

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War </a>was fought between the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Empire of Japan</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Russia-Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Empire</a> during 1904 and 1905 over rival imperial ambitions in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Manchuria</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korean Empire</a>. The major theatres of military operations were located in Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria, and the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. Russia sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean both for its navy and for maritime trade. Vladivostok remained ice-free and operational only during the summer; Port Arthur, a naval base in Liaodong Province leased to Russia by the Qing dynasty of China from 1897, was operational year round. Russia had pursued an expansionist policy east of the Urals, in Siberia and the Far East, since the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. Since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Japan had feared Russian encroachment would interfere with its plans to establish a sphere of influence in Korea and Manchuria.Seeing Russia as a rival, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of the Korean Empire as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded the establishment of a neutral buffer zone between Russia and Japan in Korea, north of the 39th parallel. The Imperial Japanese Government perceived this as obstructing their plans for expansion into mainland Asia and chose to go to war. After negotiations broke down in 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy opened hostilities in a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, China on 9 February 1904.Although Russia suffered a number of defeats, Emperor Nicholas II remained convinced that Russia could still win if it fought on; he chose to remain engaged in the war and await the outcomes of key naval battles. As hope of victory dissipated, he continued the war to preserve the dignity of Russia by averting a 'humiliating peace.' Russia ignored Japan's willingness early on to agree to an armistice and rejected the idea of bringing the dispute to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague. The war was eventually concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth (5 September 1905), mediated by <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a>. The complete victory of the Japanese military surprised international observers and transformed the balance of power in both East Asia and Europe, resulting in Japan's emergence as a great power and a decline in the Russian Empire's prestige and influence in Europe. Russia's incurrence of substantial casualties and losses for a cause that resulted in humiliating defeat contributed to a growing domestic unrest which culminated in the 1905 Russian Revolution, and severely damaged the prestige of the Russian autocracy.

Russo-Japanese War 

In 1905, following its victory in the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> established <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korea</a> as a protectorate through the signing of the Eulsa Treaty (often referred to as the Japan–Korea Protectorate Treaty). This move marked a significant step in Japan’s imperial expansion and solidified its growing dominance in East Asia.The treaty stripped Korea of its sovereignty in foreign affairs and placed its diplomatic functions under Japanese control. Ito Hirobumi, one of Japan’s most prominent statesmen, was appointed as the first Resident-General of Korea, overseeing its administration. The agreement was secured under heavy Japanese pressure and without the consent of the Korean emperor, Gojong, leading to widespread resentment among Koreans.This protectorate status paved the way for the eventual annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910, signifying a crucial moment in Japan’s rise as an imperial power and a turning point in the history of Korean-Japanese relations.

Eulsa Treaty: Japanese Protectorate Over Korea

The High Treason Incident was a socialist-anarchist plot to assassinate the Japanese Emperor Meiji in 1910, leading to a mass arrest of leftists, and the execution of 12 alleged conspirators in 1911.The High Treason Incident created a shift in the intellectual environment of the late Meiji period towards more control and heightened repression for ideologies deemed potentially subversive. It is often cited as one of the factors leading to the promulgation of the Peace Preservation Laws.

High Treason Incident 

The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 was made by representatives of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Empire of Japan</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Korea' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Korean Empire</a> on 22 August 1910. In this treaty, Japan formally annexed Korea following the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 (by which Korea became a protectorate of Japan) and the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 (by which Korea was deprived of the administration of internal affairs).

Japan annexes Korea 

Emperor Meiji, suffering from diabetes, nephritis, and gastroenteritis, died of uremia. Although the official announcement said he died at 00:42 on 30 July 1912, the actual death was at 22:40 on 29 July. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Emperor Taishō.By 1912, Japan had gone through a political, economic, and social revolution and emerged as one of the great powers in the world. The New York Times summed up this transformation at the Emperor's funeral in 1912 as: 'the contrast between that which preceded the funeral car and that which followed it was striking indeed. Before it went old Japan; after it came new Japan.'

Emperor Meiji dies 

The end of the Meiji period was marked by huge government domestic and overseas investments and defense programs, nearly exhausted credit, and a lack of foreign reserves to pay debts. The influence of Western culture experienced in the Meiji period also continued. Notable artists, such as Kobayashi Kiyochika, adopted Western painting styles while continuing to work in ukiyo-e; others, such as Okakura Kakuzō, kept an interest in traditional Japanese painting. Authors such as Mori Ōgai studied in the West, bringing back with them to Japan different insights on human life influenced by developments in the West.

Epilogue 

Čano-japonská přátelská a obchodní smlouva byla první smlouvou mezi Japonskem a Čínou Qing. Byl podepsán 13. září 1871 v Tientinu k datu Munenari a zplnomocnění Li Hongzhang. Smlouva zaručila soudní práva konzulů a sazby fixních obchodů mezi oběma zeměmi. Smlouva byla ratifikována na jaře 1873 a byla použita až do první čínsko-japonské války, která vedla k vyjednávání se smlouvou Shimonoski.

Smlouva o přátelství a obchodního japonska