The Ashigaru, meaning "light of foot," were essential foot soldiers in feudal Japan, primarily serving during the Sengoku period (1467-1615 CE). Initially mentioned in the 14th century,^[1] their significant use emerged during the Muromachi period under the Ashikaga shogunate, as different warring groups increasingly employed them.^[2] Their role evolved from simple peasant warriors into a well-organized military force that significantly influenced the outcomes of numerous battles. Initially, Ashigaru were recruited from the lower peasant classes to supplement the samurai, Japan's elite warrior class. Over time, they became more professional and crucial in the composition of Japanese armies.

I. Origins and Evolution of the Ashigaru

In Japan, Emperor Tenmu (673-686 CE) initially attempted to establish a conscripted national army, but this effort was unsuccessful. By the 10th century, Japan had shifted to a system where individual landowners were responsible for providing men for military conflicts. These landowners, who typically owned horses, formed the early samurai class. The individuals who cultivated the land for these landowners became the common foot soldiers during wartime, setting the stage for the later development of organized infantry such as the ashigaru.

The origins of the Ashigaru can be traced back to the Kamakura period (1185-1333 CE), where they first emerged as auxiliary troops supporting the samurai class. Initially, these foot soldiers were primarily peasants, called upon during times of war to serve temporarily under local lords or samurai. Their role was minimal and mostly limited to basic support tasks and rudimentary combat duties, equipped with whatever weapons they could fashion themselves or were provided, often merely sticks and farm tools.

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As Japan transitioned into the Muromachi period (1336-1573 CE), the use of Ashigaru began to evolve from these temporary levies into a more structured and vital component of feudal armies. During the Ōnin War, ashigaru gained a notorious reputation as they looted and burned Miyako, now known as Kyoto. The continuous state of warfare known as the Sengoku period (1467-1615 CE) necessitated a more reliable and permanent military force. Also, the nature of warfare transitioned from individual combat to massed troop formations.^[3] Daimyos, competing fiercely for power and territory, began to see the value in maintaining a standing army that included well-organized units of Ashigaru. This period marked a significant transition in the recruitment, training, and status of these foot soldiers.

Accompanying their increased military significance was the evolution in their equipment and armor. Initially equipped with rudimentary protection, Ashigaru started to receive better armor as their role expanded. By the late Muromachi period, many wore do-maru or haramaki, types of cuirass that offered better protection while allowing flexibility and mobility. The development of the Ashigaru's armor and weaponry reflected their growing importance and the changing nature of warfare in Japan. As they transitioned from temporary levies to a professional force, their equipment became standardized and more sophisticated, mirroring their enhanced military role and the increasing demands of warfare dynamics during this tumultuous period in Japanese history.

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The ashigaru became a pivotal element in samurai armies, especially from 1543 when the Portuguese introduced matchlock firearms to Japan. This new technology was quickly adopted by local daimyōs who armed their ashigaru with these guns, as they were easier to master compared to the longbow which required extensive training. With increasing complexity in warfare and the expansion of armies, ashigaru received rigorous training to maintain formation under enemy fire.

The effectiveness of matchlock firearms was clearly demonstrated during the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, where the ashigaru of the Oda and Tokugawa clans played a crucial role. Their strategic placement and use of firearms effectively countered the heavy cavalry charges of the Takeda clan, leading to a significant victory that undermined the Takeda's military strength.

Following this battle, the strategic importance of the ashigaru was solidified. Their role was further emphasized during the invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597, where they were employed extensively against Korean and later Ming-dynasty Chinese forces. The proportion of firearms to bows increased from 2:1 in the first invasion to 4:1 in the second, reflecting the recognized effectiveness of the matchlock guns in combat.^[4] This shift was not just a change in weapon technology but marked a strategic evolution in battlefield tactics, emphasizing volley fire and coordinated maneuvers.

II. The Ashigaru’s Role in Warfare

The Ashigaru played a pivotal role in warfare during feudal Japan, especially as their tactical employment evolved with changing military strategies. Their use in various formations and the adoption of new combat tactics, particularly with the introduction of firearms, significantly impacted major battles throughout the Sengoku period.

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One of the critical transformations in the use of Ashigaru was their incorporation into mixed units with samurai, leading to diverse and flexible battle formations. The Ashigaru were often positioned in the front lines due to their numbers, serving as the main force to engage the enemy initially, while samurai executed more specialized maneuvers. A typical formation was the "Yari no ana" (spear square), where Ashigaru spearmen would create a defensive square with spears pointed outward, protecting the gunners within as they reloaded.

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Case Study: The Ōnin War (1467-1477 CE)

The Ōnin War serves as an early example of the Ashigaru's role in larger conflicts, marking the beginning of the Sengoku period. Although still primarily spear and bow users, the Ashigaru were crucial in sieges and skirmishes throughout Kyoto. Their numbers and relatively quick mobilization allowed daimyos to exert control over contested territories rapidly. The prolonged conflict demonstrated the necessity of having a reliable and sizable force of Ashigaru, influencing their more formal incorporation into the armies of the period.

Case Study: The Battle of Sekigahara (1600 CE)

The Battle of Sekigahara, which was pivotal in establishing Tokugawa Ieyasu’s shogunate, highlighted the strategic use of Ashigaru on a massive scale. Ieyasu’s forces included a significant number of Ashigaru, equipped with matchlock guns. Their deployment in carefully planned formations allowed them to execute volleys of gunfire that devastated enemy lines. The effective use of these foot soldiers in such formations was instrumental in Tokugawa's decisive victory.

The impact of the Ashigaru on the outcomes of these key conflicts was profound. Their growing prominence was reflected not just in their numbers, but also in their increasing military effectiveness. As Ashigaru units became more integral to the strategies employed by daimyos, their influence on the battlefield grew correspondingly. Their role in significant battles throughout the Sengoku period not only defined the military tactics of the time but also underscored their evolution from auxiliary peasant forces to critical components of feudal Japanese armies. Their effective use directly correlated with the rise and fall of many daimyos and was instrumental in the eventual unification of Japan under the Tokugawa shogunate.

III. Weapons and Armor of the Ashigaru

Initially, the Ashigaru were equipped with simple weapons like the yari (spear),^[2] which became their iconic armament. The yari was effective for both thrusting and slashing, and its versatility made it suitable for various combat scenarios. Over time, the design of the yari evolved, with the su-yari (straight spear) and the nagae-yari (long spear) being the most common forms used by the Ashigaru.

Armor worn by the Ashigaru was designed to be cost-effective yet functional. Their armor varied widely, ranging from none to full gear, depending on the era. This included jingasa (conical hats made of materials such as iron, wood, or leather), dō (cuirasses), kabuto (helmets), tatami zukin (armored hoods), kote (armored sleeves), suneate (greaves), and haidate (cuisses). By the Sengoku period (c. 1467-1603 CE), many Ashigaru wore do-maru or haramaki, which were types of cuirass that wrapped around the body and were simpler and lighter than the elaborate samurai armor. These armors were typically made from iron plates laced together with leather or silk cords, providing enough protection without the high cost of more elaborate samurai armor.

Helmets, or kabuto, were also worn, though they were less ornate than those of the samurai. Made from riveted metal plates, these helmets were functional and provided significant protection against swords and arrows. Facial armor, like menpo or hoate, was less common among Ashigaru but was used by some to protect the face during combat.

Footwear consisted of waraji (straw sandals) or tabi (socks with a separate section for the big toe), which were suited for long marches and provided enough agility during combat. This footwear was paired with light clothing that allowed for mobility, essential for the often strenuous and dynamic roles Ashigaru played in battles.

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During the Sengoku period (15th and 16th centuries), the demand for armor increased dramatically due to the expanding size of ashigaru forces. This led to the mass production of simple munition armor,^[5] such as cuirasses and helmets, including foldable tatami armor made from small iron plates linked by mail and attached to a cloth backing.

Ashigaru wearing armor and jingasa firing tanegashima (Japanese matchlocks).

By the 16th century, the ashigaru were also using matchlocks known as tanegashima.^[6] For battlefield identification, they often wore small banners called sashimono on their backs.^[7]

IV. Social and Economic Impact of the Ashigaru

The socio-economic background of the Ashigaru was predominantly rooted in the peasant class, making their recruitment a significant aspect of feudal Japanese society. Initially, these foot soldiers were farmers and villagers, drafted during times of need and returned to their fields once conflicts ceased. However, as continuous warfare became the norm during the Sengoku period, many Ashigaru transitioned into a more permanent military role. This shift not only changed their individual lives but also had broader economic and social implications.

Economic Implications of Maintaining an Ashigaru Troop

Maintaining an Ashigaru troop involved significant economic considerations for a daimyo. As these soldiers became a standing force, the costs associated with their upkeep grew. Land allocations were one of the primary methods of compensation; Ashigaru were often given small plots of land for their service instead of a regular salary. This practice not only secured their loyalty but also tied them economically to their lord's prosperity. Additionally, the need to equip these troops with armor, weapons, and supplies led to an increased focus on domestic production capacities. Local industries that produced weapons, armor, and other military supplies received a substantial boost, which in turn affected local economies and supported regional development.

Changes in Social Mobility for Ashigaru and Their Families

The rise of the Ashigaru had significant implications for social mobility within feudal Japan. As the importance of these foot soldiers increased, so did their status within society. From mere peasant warriors, Ashigaru could rise through the ranks, and in some instances, they or their descendants were granted samurai status. This elevation was not merely symbolic; it included perks such as better armor, weapons, and training, as well as increased social respect and rights. Moreover, the families of Ashigaru also benefited from their improved status and economic stability, contributing to subtle shifts in the rigid social hierarchy of the time.

One prominent example of Ashigaru achieving significant social mobility is Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who rose from a peasant background to become one of Japan’s most powerful daimyo and ultimately the de facto ruler of Japan. His rise was facilitated by his initial service as an Ashigaru, which provided him the opportunity to display his military prowess and leadership skills. Hideyoshi’s story is often highlighted as a testament to the potential for upward mobility that the Ashigaru class offered during this tumultuous period.

The Ashigaru’s role thus extended beyond the battlefield, influencing the socio-economic fabric of feudal Japan. Their rise from humble origins to key military components facilitated not only their personal mobility but also supported the broader economic base of their regions through increased military spending. This dual impact of the Ashigaru highlights their importance not just in military terms but also in shaping the social and economic landscape of the period.

V. Daily Life and Culture of an Ashigaru

The daily life of an Ashigaru during feudal Japan was shaped by the demands of military service, yet it was punctuated with periods of peace that allowed for cultural expressions and personal development. Living conditions, training routines, and the overarching influence of Bushido significantly impacted their day-to-day activities and their perception in society.

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Daily Life and Living Conditions

Ashigaru typically lived in barracks or communal quarters near their lord's castle when not on campaign. These quarters were modest, reflecting their status below the samurai. Daily life involved rigorous training to master various weapons, particularly spears and later matchlock guns. They also engaged in physical fitness and tactical drills to ensure readiness for battle. When not training or fighting, Ashigaru were often employed in constructing fortifications, repairing castles, and other manual labor tasks required by their daimyo.

Their diet was simple, mainly consisting of rice, vegetables, and occasionally fish. This basic diet was supplemented by whatever they could grow or forage, a necessity in times of war when resources were scarce. The communal aspect of their living arrangements fostered a strong sense of camaraderie and unit cohesion, essential for maintaining morale during prolonged conflicts.

Influence of Bushido

Although primarily associated with the samurai, the principles of Bushido ("the way of the warrior") also influenced Ashigaru, especially as their role in military and social structures evolved. Principles such as loyalty, honor, and discipline became integral to their conduct. Ashigaru were expected to demonstrate loyalty to their lords and bravery on the battlefield, mirroring the expectations of higher-status samurai. This adherence to Bushido not only enhanced their effectiveness as soldiers but also elevated their standing within the military hierarchy.

VI. Decline of the Ashigaru

During the Edo period (1603-1868 CE), Japan experienced prolonged peace under Tokugawa shogunate rule, which fundamentally altered the role of the Ashigaru. This shift from constant warfare to relative stability led to significant transformations in their duties and ultimately contributed to the decline of traditional Ashigaru units.

Transition of Ashigaru Roles During the Edo Period

With the cessation of widespread warfare, the need for large standing armies decreased substantially. Ashigaru, who had been integral to military campaigns, found their roles shifting more towards law enforcement and administrative duties. Many served as local police, castle guards, and in other roles that helped maintain order within the domains. This transition saw Ashigaru taking on responsibilities that were previously outside the traditional scope of their military functions.

Factors Leading to Decline

The very peace that redefined their roles also led to the gradual obsolescence of traditional Ashigaru units. The stability of the Edo period reduced the need for extensive military forces, which in turn diminished the importance of maintaining Ashigaru in large numbers. Additionally, the socio-political landscape of Japan was evolving; the rigid class system that defined the feudal era began to face challenges as commerce and urbanization introduced new dynamics to Japanese society. Technological and organizational changes in military science and tactics also contributed to the decline of the Ashigaru. As Western influences started to penetrate Japan, there was a growing interest in modernizing the military, which emphasized more professional and technically skilled armies over the traditionally levied forces.

Disbandment During the Meiji Restoration

The final disbandment of Ashigaru units came during the Meiji Restoration in 1868, a period marked by profound transformation and modernization in Japan. The Meiji government sought to abolish the feudal structures that had governed Japan for centuries, including the samurai class. As part of these reforms, the traditional Ashigaru units were disbanded, and a national conscription ordinance was issued in 1873, establishing a modern, Western-style national army. This new army was based on compulsory service by all male citizens, thus eliminating the need for the Ashigaru as a distinct class of military servants.

The transformation and eventual decline of the Ashigaru reflect broader changes in Japanese society, from a war-torn feudal state to a unified nation-state pursuing modernization. Their story is a testament to the dynamic nature of military and social structures responding to the pressures of peace, economic change, and cultural shifts.

Conclusion

The Ashigaru were pivotal in shaping Japanese history, contributing significantly to military practices, social evolution, and cultural heritage. As foot soldiers originally drawn from the peasant class, they played crucial roles in numerous pivotal battles throughout Japan's feudal era, particularly during the Sengoku period. Their effective use of new technologies, like the matchlock gun, revolutionized Japanese warfare and demonstrated the strategic importance of organized, disciplined military units in achieving victory.

Socially, the rise of the Ashigaru facilitated a shift in Japan's rigid feudal structure, offering pathways for social mobility previously unavailable in such a stratified society. This not only altered individual lives but also influenced the broader societal norms, challenging and gradually changing the feudal hierarchy.

Moreover, the transformation of the Ashigaru over time— from temporary levies to a professionalized military force—mirrors the broader transitions in Japanese society from the feudal era to modern times. Their adaptation to the demands of prolonged periods of war and subsequent peacetime roles under the Tokugawa shogunate exemplifies the dynamic nature of Japanese military and social history.