The Crimean War caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.^[62]  Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed^[63] and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and fled to the Ottoman Empire,^[64] resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey.^[65] Some Circassian organisations give much higher numbers, totalling 1–1.5 million deported or killed. Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both Pan-Turkism and a sense of Turkish nationalism.^[66]