The early history of Mecca is not well-documented,^[7] with the first non-Islamic reference appearing in 741 CE, after Prophet Muhammad's death, in the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle. This source mistakenly locates Mecca in Mesopotamia instead of the Hejaz region of western Arabia, where archaeological and textual sources are scarce.^[8]

Medina, on the other hand, has been inhabited since at least the 9th century BCE.^[9] By the 4th century CE, it was home to Arab tribes from Yemen and three Jewish tribes: the Banu Qaynuqa, the Banu Qurayza, and Banu Nadir.^[10]

Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca around 570 CE and began his ministry there in 610 CE. He migrated to Medina in 622 CE, where he united Arabian tribes under Islam. Following his death in 632 CE, Abu Bakr became the first caliph, succeeded by Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib. This period marked the formation of the Rashidun Caliphate.

Under the Rashidun and the following Umayyad Caliphate, Muslims expanded their territory significantly, from the Iberian Peninsula to India. They overcame the Byzantine army and toppled the Persian Empire, shifting the Muslim world's political focus to these newly acquired territories. Despite these expansions, Mecca and Medina remained central to Islamic spirituality. The Quran mandates the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca for all capable Muslims. The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, with the Kaaba, and the Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, containing Muhammad's tomb, have been pivotal pilgrimage sites since the 7th century.^[11]

Following the collapse of the Umayyad Empire in 750 CE, the region that would become Saudi Arabia largely returned to traditional tribal governance, which persisted after the initial Muslim conquests. This area was characterized by a fluctuating landscape of tribes, tribal emirates, and confederations, often lacking long-term stability.^[12]

Muawiyah I, the first Umayyad caliph and a native of Mecca, invested in his hometown by constructing buildings and wells.^[13] During the Marwanid period, Mecca evolved into a cultural hub for poets and musicians. Despite this, Medina held greater significance for a substantial portion of the Umayyad era, as it was the residence of the burgeoning Muslim aristocracy.^[13]

The reign of Yazid I saw significant turmoil. Abd Allah bin al-Zubair's revolt led to Syrian troops entering Mecca. This period witnessed a catastrophic fire that damaged the Kaaba, which Ibn al-Zubair subsequently reconstructed.^[13] In 747, a Kharidjit rebel from Yemen briefly seized Mecca without resistance but was soon overthrown by Marwan II.^[13] Finally, in 750, control of Mecca and the larger caliphate transitioned to the Abbasids.^[13]