British indirect rule in Egypt, from 1882 to 1952, was a period marked by significant political changes and nationalistic movements. This era began with the British military victory over the Egyptian Army at Tel el-Kebir in September 1882 and ended with the 1952 Egyptian Revolution, which transformed Egypt into a republic and led to the expulsion of British advisers.

Muhammad Ali's successors included his son Ibrahim (1848), grandson Abbas I (1848), Said (1854), and Isma'il (1863). Abbas I was cautious, while Said and Ismail were ambitious but financially imprudent. Their extensive development projects, like the Suez Canal completed in 1869, resulted in massive debts to European banks and heavy taxation, causing public discontent. Ismail's attempts to expand into Ethiopia were unsuccessful, leading to defeats at Gundet (1875) and Gura (1876).

By 1875, Egypt's financial crisis led Ismail to sell Egypt's 44% share in the Suez Canal to the British. This move, combined with escalating debts, resulted in British and French financial controllers exerting significant influence over the Egyptian government by 1878.^[108]

Dissatisfaction with foreign intervention and local governance spurred nationalist movements, with prominent figures like Ahmad Urabi emerging by 1879. Urabi's nationalist government in 1882, committed to democratic reforms, provoked a military intervention by Britain and France. The British victory at Tel el-Kebir^[109] led to the reinstatement of Tewfik Pasha and the establishment of a de facto British protectorate.^[110]

In 1914, the British protectorate was formalized, replacing the Ottoman influence. During this period, incidents like the 1906 Dinshaway Incident fueled nationalist sentiments.^[111] The 1919 revolution, ignited by the exile of nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul, led to the UK's unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence in 1922.^[112]

A constitution was implemented in 1923, leading to the election of Saad Zaghlul as Prime Minister in 1924. The 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty attempted to stabilize the situation, but ongoing British influence and royal political interference led to continued unrest.

The 1952 Revolution, orchestrated by the Free Officers Movement, resulted in the abdication of King Farouk and the declaration of Egypt as a republic. British military presence continued until 1954, marking the end of nearly 72 years of British influence in Egypt.^[113]